TREATMENT INTEGRITY IN APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS WITH CHILDREN

Functional analysis of behavior depends upon accurate measurement of both independent and dependent variables. Quantifiable and controllable operations that demonstrate these functional relationships are necessary for a science of human behavior. Failure to implement independent variables with integrity threatens the internal and external validity of experiments. A review of all applied behavior analysis studies with children as subjects that have been published in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis between 1980 and 1990 found that approximately 16% of these studies measured the accuracy of independent variable implementation. Two thirds of these studies did not operationally define the components of the independent variable. Specific recommendations for improving the accuracy of independent variable implementation and for defining independent variables are discussed.     

A RESPONSE-RESTRICTION ANALYSIS OF STEREOTYPY IN ADOLESCENTS WITH MENTAL RETARDATION: IMPLICATIONS FOR APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

The behavior of 4 adolescents with severe or profound mental retardation was evaluated in the presence of four sets of materials during periods of unstructured leisure activity. Functional engagement with the materials, stereotypic engagement with the materials, stereotypy without interaction with the materials, and other aberrant behaviors were recorded. Across a series of experimental conditions, the number of sets of materials was reduced from four to one by eliminating the set most frequently manipulated in each preceding condition. In the final condition, four sets of materials were again made available for manipulation. The procedures replicated Green and Striefel's (1988) response-restriction analysis of the activity preferences and play behaviors of children with autism. In general, the results of the present experiment replicate those of Green and Striefel in that reallocation of responding was idiosyncratic and unpredictable as sets of materials were removed. Nevertheless, the results provided insight into how responding might be reallocated if it were restricted through behavioral interventions rather than by restriction of access. Thus, the results are discussed with respect to how response-restriction analyses may be useful in identifying topographies of behavior that could be included in differential reinforcement contingencies that are designed to affect stereotypic behavior and in the selection and arrangement of environmental stimuli to minimize the presence of evokers of stereotypy.     

CHARACTERISTICS AND TRENDS IN APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS1

Characteristics and trends in applied behavior analysis were examined by evaluating the contents of the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA) from 1968 to 1974. Investigations were categorized according to the settings, populations, target behaviors, and research methodology employed. The analyses, completed separately for each dimension, revealed a relatively high proportion of investigations conducted in classrooms, with children and adolescents, and for problematic-disruptive behaviors. Although research in each of these areas did not constitute the majority of JABA investigations, only two categories across each content dimension were required to constitute the majority. The majority of JABA research has been conducted in classrooms and institutional settings, with children and adolescents and retardates of all ages, and for problematic-disruptive and academic behaviors. Despite the relatively restricted focus, the proportion of investigations conducted in naturalistic or open-field settings (e.g., movie theaters, parks, zoos, busses) and, to a lesser extent, day-care facilities has increased in recent years. Also, the focus upon academic responses, training individuals to employ behavior modification, and community relevant behaviors (e.g., employment, littering) has increased. As expected, examination of research design and evaluation techniques revealed extensive reliance upon intrasubject replication designs. Indeed, the majority of investigations have employed reversal (ABAB) designs. Interestingly, the use of multiple-baseline and between-group designs has increased in recent years. Finally, the use of statistical tests, not at all a rarity in JABA investigations, has not systematically increased since the inception of JABA.     

EMPLOYING CONJOINT ANALYSIS IN MAKING COMPENSATION DECISIONS

A method employing conjoint analysis that generates utility/cost ratios for various elements of the compensation package is described. Its superiority to simple preference surveys is examined relative to optimizing the level of employee satisfaction at any given expenditure level. Results of a study of the use of this method in fringe benefit planning in a large financial institution are reported.     

A REVIEW OF COMPARISON STUDIES IN APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

A commonly used research design in applied behavior analysis involves comparing two or more independent variables. Typically, the relative effectiveness of two different interventions is measured on a single dependent variable. In the current review, 54 comparison studies from seven different peer‐reviewed, behavior analytic journals were evaluated between the years 2002 and 2011. Each study was evaluated across seven dimensions: (1) experimental design, (2) setting, (3) participants, (4) type of comparison, (5) number of comparisons, (6) treatment integrity, and (7) outcome. There were some consistencies across studies, with half resulting in equivalent outcomes across comparisons. In addition, most studies employed the use of an alternating treatments or multi‐element single‐subject design and compared a teaching methodology. On the basis of these results, the value of comparison study as well as directions for future comparison research is discussed. Overall, comparison study is a worthy and important enterprise that requires a high degree of experimental control and a careful analyses of the results, regardless of whether the outcome clearly favored one independent variable or not. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

AUTOMATED MEASUREMENT IN APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS: A REVIEW

Measurement is a critical aspect of the scientific process. If measurement systems are not accurate and precise, the findings of experiments will most likely be spurious. In applied behavior analysis, the most prevalent form of measurement is human observation with automated measurement being used sporadically. Automated measurement is generally more accurate as it minimizes recording error. This paper reviews some of the common measurement systems currently in use and examines some new technologies that may expand the use of automated recording in the future. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

CHOICE MAKING TO PROMOTE ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR FOR STUDENTS WITH EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL CHALLENGES

Two analyses investigated the effects of choice making on the responding of elementary school students with emotional and behavioral challenges. In the first analysis, 2 participants were given choices from menus of academic tasks, all of which were pertinent to their educational objectives in English and spelling, respectively. Reversal designs showed that the choice-making conditions increased task engagement and reduced disruptive behavior for both students. An additional analysis was performed with a 3rd student in an effort to further distinguish the effects of choice making from preference. In this study, one of the no-choice phases was yoked to a previous choice-making condition. This analysis demonstrated that the choice-making condition was superior to baseline and yoked control phases as determined by levels of task engagement and disruptive behavior. The findings of the two analyses contribute information relevant to students with emotional and behavioral disorders, and to a growing literature on the desirable effects of choice making for students with disabilities and challenging behaviors.     

COMPONENT ANALYSIS OF BEHAVIOR SKILLS TRAINING IN FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS

Behavioral Skills Training (BST) is an effective training package that consists of instructions, modeling, rehearsal, and feedback. Although the efficacy of BST has been demonstrated, previous research has not clearly delineated its active components. This study used an alternating‐treatment design embedded within ABC and ABCD designs to evaluate the independent effects of all components of BST for training teachers to conduct functional analyses. Prior to baseline, teachers reviewed written instructions. Following baseline, modeling, rehearsal, and feedback training occurred independently during the first training phase and in combination during subsequent training phases. Rehearsal was ineffective, whereas feedback was effective at improving the performance of all teachers. Modeling was less effective than feedback, such that improvements only occurred for some teachers and some functional analysis responses. Thus, feedback, and to a lesser extent, modeling are the effective and perhaps necessary components of BST. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A REVIEW OF ACADEMIC PERMANENT-PRODUCT DATA COLLECTION AND RELIABILITY PROCEDURES IN APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS RESEARCH1

Three publication sources were reviewed to determine the recent conventions for collecting, and assessing the reliability of, academic permanent-product data (handwriting, examination papers, etc in applied behavior analysis. The primary source was the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (1968–1974). Secondary sources included conference proceedings titled, A new direction in education: behavior analysis (E. Ramp and B. L. Hopkins, Eds., Lawrence, Kansas: Support and Development Center for Follow Through, Department of Human Development, University of Kansas, 1971), and Behavior Analysis and Education (G. Semb, Ed., Lawrence, Kansas: Support and Development Center for Follow Through, Department of Human Development, University of Kansas, 1972). Finally, as a test of the generality of the findings in the two applied behavior analysis sources, the current issue of each of 14 psychological and/or educational journals was reviewed. Thirty JABA studies reported academic permanent-product data, but only 14 reported reliability. Increasingly more product data through 1973 have been reported along with a greater proportion of authors reporting reliability. The review of the two conference proceeding publications revealed the same trend. In 1971, only three studies reported academic product data, none with reliability, while in 1972, 15 reported academic data, nine including reliability assessment. The review of 14 current education/psychology journal issues revealed four studies reporting academic data, none with reliability. Across all sources, about one-half of the studies reported reliability. Most of the studies reporting reliability described the frequency of reliability assessment, with approximately equal numbers of JABA studies reporting reliability for each paper or reliability for each session. The use of uninformed observers was reported in only three JABA studies and one conference study. Marks made on subjects' papers by either the teacher or the primary observer were reported masked for reliability purposes by only two JABA and two conference studies. Reliability was calculated on a session total basis in two JABA studies. Point-by-point agreement was given in nine JABA and three conference studies. Perfect reliability (mean agreement of 100%) was reported in only six JABA and three conference studies. Scores between 90 and 100% were reported in nine JABA and four conference studies. Scores below 80% were reported in three JABA studies. No other percentage agreement scores were reported, although one JABA study reported correlational reliability (Pearson r). In summary, recently more studies have dealt with academic data and, until 1974, a greater proportion of these studies reported reliability assessment, and relatively few studies reported either replicable methods, 100% agreement, or controls for maintaining rater independence.     

MULTICOMPONENT INTERVENTION FOR AGITATED BEHAVIOR IN A PERSON WITH ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE

We evaluated a multicomponent intervention for agitated behavior in a man with probable Alzheimer's disease. Hypotheses about variables controlling his agitated behavior guided intervention design. Based on staff interviews, direct observations, and brief experimental probes, intervention components were chosen to increase rate of reinforcement and decrease aversive aspects of his job. Intervention reduced agitated behavior without disrupting his work rate.     

职业紧张因素的结构关系分析

运用经修订的库珀职业紧张量表对不同职业和性别的我国职工的职业紧张作了研究,发现不同职业和性别对于职务感受和个人因素解释及身体健康状况等各有显著影响,通过对量表的结构关系分析后认为目标要求、应付工作压力的策略和职工的内部控制感是影响职业紧张的深层原因。从而对现今国外有关职业紧张的理论提出了新的看法,为今后的研究与应用提供了理论根据和实践指导。     

A TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS OF COMPLIANCE-GAINING BEHAVIOR

This study investigated how persuasive agents modify their compliance-gaining message strategy selection when they are confronted with noncompliant male and female persuasive targets in a variety of relational contexts. Based on instrumental learning theory, it was hypothesized that persuasive agents in noninterpersonal contexts would respond to noncompliant persuasive targets by increasing their preference for punishment-oriented message strategies and decreasing their preference for reward-oriented message strategies, whereas persuasive agents in interpersonal contexts would increase their preference for reward and punishment-oriented message strategies. Results confirmed the hypothesis. Moreover, males were expected to respond to noncompliant persuasive targets with more punishment-oriented strategies than females, and females were expected to use more rewarding strategies to secure compliance from noncompliant persuasive targets. However, results indicated that females responded to noncompliant persuasive targets with more punishment and reward-oriented strategies than males. Results also showed that the effects of persuasive agents' gender on message selection is mediated by the gender of persuasive targets and the duration of the relational consequences.     

FURTHER ANALYSIS OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOR IN RESPONSE CLASS HIERARCHIES

A functional analysis identified the reinforcers for 3 participants' problem behavior, but only relatively mild problem behaviors (e.g., screaming, disruption) were observed when all topographies produced tested consequences. We then conducted an extinction analysis in which specific topographies produced a reinforcer while all other topographies were on extinction. The extinction analysis confirmed that the same reinforcer identified in the initial functional analysis maintained more severe topographies of problem behavior (e.g., aggression). In addition, results of the extinction analysis indicated that 2 of the participants displayed patterns of responding consistent with a response class hierarchy hypothesis, in which less severe problem behavior frequently occurred prior to more severe topographies. The 3rd participant displayed a response pattern indicative of differential reinforcement effects.     

BEHAVIOR CHANGE IN THE FUNNY PAPERS: FEEDBACK TO CARTOONISTS ON SAFETY BELT USE

A multiple baseline across 8 nationally syndicated cartoonists evaluated the effects of personal advocacy letters encouraging presentations of a specific prevention message—the depiction of safety belt use in comic strips showing motor vehicle occupants. During baseline these cartoonists depicted safety belt use in only 15% (6 of 41) of their strips with occupied vehicles, but following receipt of a personal letter requesting safety belt use 41% (42 of 102) of their strips depicted safety belt use. Four cartoonists showed clear and immediate increases in depiction of safety belt use, 2 demonstrated delayed and somewhat less consistent belt use, and 2 cartoonists showed no change. The approach and results are discussed with regard to advocacy efforts intended to influence presentation of prevention messages in the media.     

BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS APPLIED TO ENVIRONMENTAL/ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS; A REVIEW1

Recent applications of operant technology, including the manipulation of environmental conditions and response consequences, have been directed toward the improvement of man-environment relations. This document summarizes the research designs, procedures, results, and conclusions of these recent behavioral interventions for ecological rebalance. Each of the 32 studies reviewed was undertaken since 1970; all studies were relatively successful in changing the probability of an ecology-related response; all studies incorporated basic methodologies applicable for large-scale, community programs; most of the investigations were conducted in field settings (e.g., college campuses, grocery stores, mobile-trailer parks, homes, movie theaters, public campgrounds, and a football stadium). Several of the studies are as yet unpublished. Sources for receiving documentation of the unpublished research are provided in this document. About 50% of the investigations reviewed were designed to influence behaviors related to environmental litter; the others were of behavior-modification programs that substantially increased bus-ridership, decreased lawn-trampling, promoted the purchase of drinks in returnable rather than throwaway containers, initiated a recycling process, or reduced energy consumption. Essentially, the interventions were either preventive in nature (i.e., designed to discourage environment-destructive behaviors before they occur), or remedial (i.e., designed to encourage behaviors that correct an existing environmental problem). Usually, the preventive measures emphasized responses priming (or prompting), while the corrective measures applied some form of positive reinforcement. Response priming was accomplished with modelling techniques, or with written and/or verbal prompts presented either publicly or on a personal, one-to-one basis. Among the positive reinforcement procedures were field applications of token economies, lottery systems, feedback programming, and intergroup contests, as well as individual contingency contracting. Some experimental designs provided for comparisons between the behavioral effects of response priming and positive reinforcement.