Perfectionism,social problem-solving ability,and psychological distress

The present research examined the relation between dimensions of perfectionism and self-appraised problem-solving behaviors and attitudes. Specifically, in two separate studies, we tested the hypothesis that socially prescribed perfectionism (i.e., the perception that others demand perfection from the self) is associated with poorer social problem-solving ability. In addition, measures of psychological adjustment were included in Study 2 so that we could (1) examine whether socially prescribed perfectionism and poorer problem-solving ability were still associated after removing variance associated with psychological distress; and (2) compare depression and anxiety in terms of their respective associations with social problem-solving ability. Correlational analyses of the data from both studies confirmed that socially prescribed perfectionism is associated with more negative self-perceptions of problem-solving orientation, and that the link between socially prescribed perfectionism and negative perceptions of problem-solving orientation remains present after removing variance due to levels of negative affectivity. Both depression and anxiety were associated with a negative problem-solving orientation, but only depression was associated with more negative appraisals of actual problem-solving skills. The results suggest that perceived exposure to imposed standards of perfection undermines the problem-solving process and that individuals with high levels of socially prescribed perfectionism are particularly in need of counseling interventions designed to provide a more positive problem-solving orientation.This research was supported by grants #410-91-0856 and #410-93-1256 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 1994 annual meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association in Providence, Rhode Island. The authors wish to thank Shawn Mosher for his assistance with the data collection.     

Perfectionism as a Predictor of Post-event Rumination in a Socially Anxious Sample

Socially anxious individuals tend to have elevated levels of perfectionism and engage in excessive rumination following social situations. The present research aimed to examine perfectionism, in both state and trait forms, as a predictor of post-event rumination. Socially anxious students (N = 104) completed measures of trait perfectionism prior to, and state perfectionism following, an anxiety inducing speech task. Post-event rumination was assessed 2 days later. State and trait perfectionism were significant predictors of post-event rumination (2 days later), while controlling for baseline social anxiety, depression and state anxiety. These results support the need to target perfectionism in treatments for social anxiety disorder.     

Attentional Bias,Self-consciousness and Perfectionism in Social Phobia Before and After Cognitive-Behaviour Therapy

Attentional bias for threat words (as measured by the emotional Stroop task), selfconsciousness and perfectionism was studied in 24 patients with social phobia before and after cognitive-behaviour treatment. A total of 18 (75%) of the patients were classified as treatment responders on the basis of reduced scores for social anxiety. The treatment responders showed a significant reduction in attentional bias for social threat words, in public self-consciousness and in perfectionism. The non-responders showed an equal reduction in perfectionism; as they had a much higher level of perfectionism before treatment, however, their change only amounted to a lowering of their level of perfectionism to the level that characterized the treatment responders before treatment. The treatment responders, on the other hand, reduced their level of perfectionism to that of non-clinical samples.     

Perfectionism, and Cognitions, Affect, Self-esteem, and Physiological Reactions in a Performance Situation

The current paper describes the results of an experiment in which 200 students who varied in levels of trait perfectionism performed a laboratory task and then were assessed in terms of levels of state affect, state self-esteem, and state automatic thoughts. Independent variables included task difficulty (high versus moderate level of difficulty) and performance feedback independent of their actual level of performance (positive or negative). Analyses also examined objective levels of performance (i.e., the number of errors on the task) and initial confidence in performance. Analyses showed that the experience of state automatic thoughts involving perfectionism was associated with negative automatic thoughts, negative affective reactions, and lower state self-esteem. Analyses of changes in mood and self-esteem showed generally that participants high in socially prescribed perfectionism had increased levels of dysphoria and anxiety and lower levels of state self-esteem following the experience of negative performance feedback or after having a relatively poor performance. Analyses of the physiological measures found increased systolic blood pressure among self-oriented perfectionists who had poorer performance and among socially prescribed perfectionists who had received negative feedback about their performance. The results for heart-rate changes yielded a less clear pattern, though there was evidence that participants with high socially prescribed perfectionism had increased heart rate if they received negative feedback and were relatively low in confidence. Collectively, these findings illustrate that how perfectionists react in challenging situations varies as a function of actual performance, performance feedback, and feelings of personal efficacy.

Perfectionism and changes in athlete burnout over three months: Interactive effects of personal standards and evaluative concerns perfectionism

ObjectivesA recent longitudinal study with junior athletes (Madigan, Stoeber, & Passfield, 2015) found perfectionism to predict changes in athlete burnout: evaluative concerns perfectionism predicted increases in burnout over a 3-month period, whereas personal standards perfectionism predicted decreases. The present study sought to expand on these findings by using the framework of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism (Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010) to examine whether evaluative concerns perfectionism and personal standards perfectionism show interactions in predicting changes in athlete burnout.DesignTwo-wave longitudinal design.MethodThe present study examined self-reported evaluative concerns perfectionism, personal standards perfectionism, and athlete burnout in 111 athletes (mean age 24.8 years) over 3 months of active training.Results and conclusionWhen moderated regression analyses were employed, interactive effects of evaluative concerns perfectionism × personal standards perfectionism were found indicating that personal standards perfectionism buffered the effects of evaluative concerns perfectionism on total burnout and physical/emotional exhaustion. To interpret these effects, the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism provides a useful theoretical framework.     

Perfectionism, Coping, Social Support, and Depression in Maltreated Adolescents

The current study examined the associations among dimensions of perfectionism, coping, social support, and depression in 58 adolescents with a history of maltreatment. Participants completed the Child-Adolescent Perfectionism, multidimensional measures of coping and social support, and the CES-D Depression Scale. Correlational analyses showed that depression was associated with socially prescribed perfectionism, internalized emotion-oriented coping, avoidant-oriented distancing, and low family support and peer support. Analyses of coping responses and perfectionism established links between self-oriented perfectionism and internalized emotion-oriented coping responses and self-reliant problem-solving. Socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with avoidance-oriented coping (i.e., distancing). While self-oriented perfectionism and social support were unrelated, socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with reduced levels of family support. Collectively, the findings highlight the roles of poor coping and social support as contributors to the emotional distress experienced by maltreated adolescents. Moreover, it is suggested that the distress experienced by perfectionistic youth with a history of maltreatment reflects, in part, the role of maladaptive coping styles and coping resource deficits. Our findings support further consideration of personality dimensions such as perfectionism as contributors to poor functioning among maltreated youth.     

Perfectionism and components of state and trait anxiety

The association between dimensions of perfectionism and state and trait anxiety was examined in three studies. Study 1 and Study 2 were correlational studies that investigated the link between dimensions of perfectionism (i.e., self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism) and the Endler Multidimensional Anxiety Scales (EMAS). Taken together, the results indicated that self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionsim are correlated significantly with both the cognitive-worry and autonomic-arousal components of state anxiety. As for the trait anxiety measures, self-oriented perfectionism was associated with the ambiguous and social evaluation facets in Study 1, and socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with the ambiguous and daily routines facets in Study 2. The purpose of Study 3 was to examine perfectionism and state anxiety under conditions of high versus low ego involvement. It was found that socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with higher state anxiety, but only in the high ego involvement condition. Self-oriented perfectionism was unrelated to state anxiety in either experimental condition. Overall, the findings indicate that socially prescribed perfectionism is the dimension linked most closely with components of state and trait anxiety, especially under conditions of ego threat. The results are discussed in terms of the need for an interactional approach to the study of the social aspects of both perfectionism and anxiety.     

Perfectionism and burnout in junior elite soccer players: The mediating influence of unconditional self-acceptance

ObjectivesIt has been argued that elite junior athletes may be especially vulnerable to the development of burnout [Coakley, D. (1992). Burnout among adolescent athletes: A personal failure or social problem. Sociology, 9, 271–285; Feigley, D. A. (1984). Psychological burnout in high-level athletes. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 12, 108–119; Raedeke, T. D. (1997). Is athlete burnout more than just stress? A sport commitment perspective. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 19, 396–418]. Few studies to date have examined the psychological mechanisms that may underpin this vulnerability. One exception was a study by Gould, Tuffrey, Udry, and Loehr [(1996). Burnout in competitive junior tennis players: I. A quantitative psychological assessment. The Sport Psychologist, 10, 332–340], which found that a form of perfectionism reflecting a preoccupation with avoiding mistakes differentiated between burnout and non-burnout tennis players. The first purpose of the present investigation was to extend this research and examine the influence of self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism on burnout in elite junior soccer players. A second purpose was to examine whether the association between perfectionism and burnout was mediated by unconditional self-acceptance.DesignA correlational design was employed.MethodOne hundred and fifty-one soccer players (M age=14.4 years, SD=2.4 years) completed an inventory that included Flett and Hewitt's (1991) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, Chamberlain and Haaga's (2003) Unconditional Self-acceptance Scale, and Raedeke and Smith's [(2001). Development and preliminary validation of an athlete burnout measure. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 23, 281–306] Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ).ResultsStructural equation modeling indicated that unconditional self-acceptance partially mediated the relationship between the two dimensions of perfectionism and athlete burnout. Contrary to the hypotheses, self-oriented perfectionism demonstrated both a positive indirect association with symptoms of burnout, as well as a direct inverse relationship.ConclusionThe findings provide support for the contention that a contingent sense of self-worth is central to both socially prescribed and self-oriented perfectionism [Flett, Besser, Davis, &; Hewitt (2003). Dimensions of perfectionism, unconditional self-acceptance, and depression. Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 21, 119–138; Flett, Hewitt, Oliver, &; MacDonald (2002). Perfectionism in children and their parents: A developmental analysis. In G. L. Flett &; P. Hewitt (Eds.), Perfectionism: Theory, research and treatment (pp. 89–132). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association], and that this association may underpin maladaptive achievement striving and increase vulnerability to athlete burnout.     

Perfectionism: The good,the bad,and the creative

The influence of adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism on creativity was examined. Initially, six measures of creativity were administered, including creative self-perceptions, behavior, and performance measures. Adaptive perfectionism was weakly positively related to creativity, whereas maladaptive perfectionism was unrelated to creativity across five of the six measures. A follow-up study assessed whether initial findings could be generalized to an everyday problem-solving task. Results indicated that adaptive perfectionism was related to higher quality but not originality of solutions. Further, a curvilinear relationship in the shape of an inverted “U” occurred between adaptive perfectionism and four of eight creativity measures. Overall, adaptive perfectionism was consistently, albeit weakly, related to creativity across various types of measures, whereas maladaptive perfectionism was not related to creativity.     

Perfectionism,Hopelessness, And Suicide Ideation: Revisions to Diathesis-Stress and Specific Vulnerability Models

The current study examined variables (daily hassles, self-esteem, dispositional optimism, coping modes, and perceived social support) that could potentially moderate associations between dimensions of perfectionism and current feelings of hopelessness and suicide ideation in university students (144 women; 61 men). Our study revealed several significant findings: (1) socially prescribed perfectionism was a significant predictor of suicide ideation, interpersonal hopelessness, and achievement hopelessness for both women and men; (2) self-oriented perfectionism did not have an independent relation with any of the suicide risk outcome variables in either women or men; (3) other-oriented perfectionism was associated negatively with both current hopelessness, particularly interpersonal hopelessness, and suicide ideation in men; (4) the cluster of proposed moderators accounted for additional unique variance in all suicide risk variables in women but in achievement hopelessness only in men; (5) optimism and social hassles were unique predictors but the results varied as a function of gender and outcome; (6) each perfectionism component interacted with specific moderators to enhance or buffer the link between perfectionism and suicide risk. The findings indicate that self-oriented and other-oriented perfectionism are possibly adaptive or maladaptive under certain conditions. Implications for the development of comprehensive, multidimensional, integrated models of the perfectionism–suicide risk link and for prevention and treatment in perfectionists at risk of suicide are discussed.

Perfectionism and efficiency: Accuracy,response bias,and invested time in proof-reading performance

Investigating problem-solving performance, Ishida, H. (2005). College students’ perfectionism and task-strategy inefficience: Why their efforts go unrewarded? Japanese Journal of Social Psychology, 20, 208–215. Found high levels of perfectionism were associated with lower efficiency. Aiming to replicate and further explore this finding, the present study investigated how two dimensions of perfectionism (high standards, discrepancy between expectations and performance) predicted efficiency in proof-reading performance. N = 96 students completed a proof-reading task involving the detection of spelling, grammar, and format errors. When error-detection performance was subjected to signal detection analysis, high standards correlated positively with the number of incorrectly detected errors (false alarms). Moreover, when task-completion time was taken into account, high standards were negatively correlated with efficiency (accuracy/time). In comparison, discrepancy correlated negatively with the number of correctly detected errors (hits) and positively with a conservative response bias. The findings show that perfectionistic standards are associated with reduced efficiency demonstrating the importance of considering invested time, errors, and response bias when investigating the relationship between perfectionism and performance.     

Perfectionism, acne and appearance concerns

This study investigated the relationship between perfectionism and two aspects of appearance worry: acne-related concerns and dysmorphic concerns. One-hundred and sixty five female university students completed measures of three facets of perfectionism: self-oriented, other-oriented and socially prescribed [Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1991a). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: conceptualization, assessment and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456–470], general psychopathology (GHQ-28), acne health related quality of life [Girman, C. J., Hartmaier, S., Thiboutot, D., Johnson, J., Barter, B., DeMunro-Mercon, & Waldstreicher, J. (1996). Evaluating health-related quality of life in patients with facial acne: development of a self-administered questionnaire for clinical trials. Quality of Life Research, 5, 481–490] and dysmorphic concerns [Oostuizen, P., Lambert, T., & Castle, D.J. (1998). Dysmorphic concern: prevalence and associations with clinical variables. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 32, 129–132]. Multiple regression analyses showed that, after controlling for general psychopathology, a high level of socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with a greater tendency to be concerned about acne in particular and appearance in general.     

The Moderating Role of Hope in the Relationship Between Maladaptive Perfectionism and Anxiety Among Early Adolescents

Abstract

The aim of the study was to examine correlations among maladaptive perfectionism, hope, and anxiety and the moderating role of hope in the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and anxiety among early adolescents. The sample of the study consisted of 639 early adolescents (354 female/285 male; Mean_age = 12.8, SD_age = .65, range: 11-14). In line with this purpose, the cross-sectional model was conducted. The findings of the study showed that there were significant correlations among maladaptive perfectionism, hope, and anxiety. Moreover, the findings found that hope moderated the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and anxiety. More specifically, the findings suggested that among early adolescents with lower hope, the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and anxiety was stronger than those with higher hope.     

Perfectionism and achievement goals in athletes: Relations with approach and avoidance orientations in mastery and performance goals

ObjectivesChallenging views that perfectionism is a maladaptive factor in sport and that it is related to a preoccupation with performance goals and a neglect of mastery goals, the present article argues that perfectionism in athletes is not generally maladaptive, but shows differential relationships with mastery and performance goals depending on which facets of perfectionism are regarded.MethodGoing beyond the dichotomous achievement goal framework, two studies with N=204 high school athletes and N=147 university student are presented investigating how two facets of perfectionism—striving for perfection and negative reactions to imperfection [Stoeber, J., Otto, K., Pescheck, E., Becker, C., & Stoll, O. (2007). Perfectionism and competitive anxiety in athletes: Differentiating striving for perfection and negative reactions to imperfection. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 959–969.]—relate to athletes’ achievement goals.DesignStudy 1 employed a cross-sectional correlational design, Study 2 a longitudinal correlational design.ResultsFollowing the trichotomous achievement goal framework, Study 1 found striving for perfection to be positively related to mastery and performance-approach goals, whereas negative reactions to imperfection were positively related to performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals and inversely to mastery goals. Following the 2×2 framework, Study 2 found striving for perfection to be positively related to mastery-approach and performance-approach goals whereas negative reactions to imperfection were positively related to mastery-avoidance, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goals. Moreover, negative reactions to imperfection predicted residual increases in mastery-avoidance goals over 3 months.ConclusionsIt is concluded that striving for perfection in athletes is associated with an adaptive pattern of achievement goals whereas negative reactions to imperfection are associated with a maladaptive pattern. Thus, striving for perfection in sport may be adaptive in athletes who do not experience strong negative reactions when performance is less than perfect.     

Perfectionism and stuttering: Findings of an online survey

PurposeUsing a multi-dimensional measure of perfectionism: the Frost Multi-dimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS: Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990), this study investigates: (a) whether adults who stutter (AWS) display more perfectionistic attitudes and beliefs than those who do not stutter, and (b) whether, in AWS, more perfectionistic attitudes and beliefs are associated with greater self-reported difficulty communicating verbally and speaking fluently.MethodIn the first analysis, FMPS responses from 81 AWS and 81 matched, normally-fluent controls were analyzed using logistic regression to investigate the relative contributions of four FMPS perfectionism-subscale self-ratings to the likelihood of being in the AWS group. In the subsequent analyses, data from the 81 AWS were analyzed using linear multiple regression to determine which FMPS subscale self-ratings best predicted their Communication-Difficulty and Fluency-Difficulty scores.ResultsBoth the likelihood of being a member of the AWS group, and also the magnitude of the AWS group's Communication-Difficulty and Fluency-Difficulty scores, were positively part-correlated to respondents’ Concern over Mistakes-Doubts about Actions (CMD) subscale self-ratings but negatively part-correlated to their Personal Standards (PS) subscale self-ratings.ConclusionsThe FMPS profiles of respondents who stutter suggest that, as a group, they are not abnormally perfectionistic overall, but may be (or perceive themselves to be) abnormally error-prone. Also, AWS who are more concerned about their errors and uncertain of their actions experience more difficulty communicating verbally and speaking fluently.Educational Objectives: After reading this article, participants will be able to: (a) describe the findings of previous research investigating the role of perfectionism in stuttering and psychopathologies; (b) discuss why a multidimensional assessment of perfectionism is important in relation to stuttering; (c) discuss ways in which data from perfectionism assessments can contribute to the planning of therapy for adults who stutter.     

Multidimensional Perfectionism and Ruminative Brooding in Current Dysphoria,Anxiety, Worry,and Anger

The current study examined links between dimensions of perfectionism, ruminative and distractive coping, and multiple measures of current distress (dysphoria, anxiety, worry, and anger) in 205 university students. A main goal was to test the hypothesis that perfectionism is related to a new measure of the critical maladaptive component of rumination (i.e., ruminative brooding) that is not confounded with symptoms and confirm that both constructs function as non-specific vulnerabilities for emotional distress. Our study revealed numerous significant findings, including: (1) socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) was the dimension most strongly related to brooding in response to depression and anxiety; (2) SPP, self-oriented perfectionism (SOP), and brooding predicted various indices of distress; (3) SOP predicted anxiety and worry in women, and it predicted dysphoria and anger in men; (4) despite the strong associations between ruminative brooding and distress, perfectionism still accounted for unique variance in distress, and vice-versa. Implications for the issue of the adaptiveness versus maladaptiveness of perfectionism and for counseling perfectionists who fall into the “brooding trap” are discussed.

Perfectionism: A contributor to social anxiety and its cognitive processes

The present study aimed to examine how perfectionism is contributing to social anxiety and its cognitive processes of post‐event rumination and self‐perception of performance following a speech task. Forty‐eight undergraduate students completed measures of perfectionism and trait social anxiety prior to performing a 3‐min impromptu speech task. Immediately following the speech task, participants rated their state anxiety and self‐perception of performance, and 24 hr later, their level of post‐event rumination was measured. Structural equation modelling revealed that perfectionism, in the form of socially prescribed perfectionism and doubts about actions, directly influences trait social anxiety, and indirectly influences post‐event rumination and self‐perception of performance through its relationship with trait social anxiety and state anxiety. This is the first study to investigate how perfectionism is contributing to social anxiety and its cognitive processes. The findings of this study provide evidence in support of the potential predictive role of perfectionism in social anxiety.     

Examining the Role of Perfectionism and Intolerance of Uncertainty in Postevent Processing in Social Anxiety Disorder

Postevent processing (PEP) is proposed to be a key maintenance factor of social anxiety disorder (SAD; e.g., Clark and Wells 1995). The goal of the current study was to examine the independent roles of two transdiagnostic variables, namely perfectionism and intolerance of uncertainty (IU), as unique predictors of PEP in SAD above and beyond social anxiety and depressive symptoms. Fifty-six adults with SAD and high levels of speech anxiety completed measures of perfectionism, IU, social anxiety, and depression. They gave an impromptu speech to induce PEP, and completed measures assessing degree of PEP and its associated distress. Significant positive correlations were found between perfectionism and negative PEP degree and distress, as well as between IU and negative PEP distress. The perfectionism subscales of parental expectations and parental criticism significantly predicted negative PEP degree and distress over and above social anxiety and depressive symptoms. Perfectionism, as well as IU, were significantly and positively correlated with positive PEP distress, and significantly predicted positive PEP distress above and beyond social anxiety and depressive symptoms. The study design was cross-sectional; hence, experimental and longitudinal studies are needed to further understand the roles of perfectionism and IU as they relate to PEP. Individuals with SAD who are high in perfectionism or IU appear to be more prone to engaging in, or experiencing distress associated with, negative PEP. Specific strategies for decreasing negative PEP in this vulnerable population, especially for those high in perfectionism, may be necessary for optimal treatment outcome.     

Perfectionism and social desirability: Students report increased perfectionism to create a positive impression

Because previous studies examining correlations between perfectionism and social desirability produced inconclusive findings, this study used an experimental approach examining the perceived social desirability of perfectionism. 117 university students were randomly assigned to three conditions (fake-good, standard, and fake-bad instructions) and then completed measures of self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Results showed that all three forms of perfectionism were perceived as socially desirable. Self-oriented perfectionism showed a strong linear trend across the conditions: Students reported significantly higher self-oriented perfectionism in the fake-good condition, and significantly lower self-oriented perfectionism in the fake-bad condition compared to standard instructions. Other-oriented perfectionism showed the same linear trend, albeit weaker, and only fake-good and fake-bad conditions differed significantly. Socially prescribed perfectionism too showed a significant linear trend: Students reported higher levels in the fake-good condition compared to standard instructions and fake-bad condition, with no significant difference between the latter conditions. The findings indicate that, in educational settings, students perceive perfectionism—including maladaptive forms such as socially prescribed perfectionism—as socially desirable.     

Perfectionism, self-consciousness and anxiety

The relation between perfectionism, anxiety, and self-consciousness was studied in a normal sample. The perfectionism dimensions of Concern over Mistakes, Doubts about Action, and Socially Prescribed Perfectionism showed a pattern of correlations not only with measures of social anxiety, but also with measures of agoraphobic fears, and fears of bodily injury, death and illness. Public self-consciousness also correlated with various measures of anxiety, but these correlations disappeared when the relevant dimensions of perfectionism were controlled for. It is concluded that perfectionism is a more relevant construct in the study of anxiety than is public self-consciousness. The results are discussed in terms of possible causal relationships between perfectionism and anxiety.