Characteristics of individuals with fear of spiders

Abstract

This paper reports the results of two studies which investigated some of the factors that differentiated individuals with fear of spiders from those without such fears. The main results suggested that (a) there was little evidence that fear of spiders in nonclinical subjects is normally acquired through direct conditioning experiences; (b) there was some evidence for a familial component to spider fears; (c) there was no support for the view that individuals reporting a fear of spiders were especially sensitized to the movement cues possessed by spiders; (d) fear of spiders was not associated either with higher levels of trait anxiety or with an increased predisposition to other fears in general; but (e) fear of spiders did appear to be associated with increased fear of other animals, but only animals that are normally considered fear-evoking or disgust-evoking. These results provide little support for a traditional conditioning view of spider fears, and they are not entirely consistent with some preparedness accounts of the acquisition of specific fears. However, the results do suggest that fear of spiders is part of a functionally integrated set of animal fears, and it is argued that the present results could be better understood by attempting to integrate predator-defence and disease-avoidance models of animal fears.     

Fear of fear,trait anxiety and aerobic fitness in relation to state anxiety during adrenalin provocation

Abstract

Psychological explanations of both spontaneous and experimentally induced panic anxiety stress the role of fear of fear, especially fear of bodily symptoms of arousal. Fear of fear is conceptually different from trait anxiety but may be associated with repeated experience of arousal symptoms in fearful situations, while frequent physical exercise may lead to habituation to these symptoms. To test this hypothesis, 44 healthy male volunteers, classified as having high or low trait anxiety and high or low aerobic fitness, underwent a single-dose adrenalin infusion (80 nanogram/kilogram bodyweight/minute). In both groups, during the experiment a significant rise in state anxiety was found; compared to the group with low trait anxiety, subjects with high trait anxiety reported higher levels of state anxiety, which could be attributed to differences in aerobic fitness. In the high-anxious group, subjects showed a greater decrease in state anxiety during the recovery phase. State anxiety during adrenalin was strongly associated with fear of bodily symptoms only in the high-anxious group. Correlations between trait anxiety and somatic anxiety were not significant; state anxiety scores tended to correlate negatively with physical fitness. It is concluded that these results lend support to a fear of fear-model of panic anxiety.     

Temperament moderates the effect of the verbal threat information pathway on children's heart rate responses to novel animals

Temperamental variables such as trait anxiety are risk factors in children for the development of anxiety disorders. This experiment aimed to test whether temperament moderates the effect of verbal threat information on the physiological component of the fear emotion. An experiment is reported in which 6-10 year old children's (N = 54) fear beliefs about novel animals were measured. They were then given threat, positive or no verbal information about these animals following which their heart rate was recorded while they placed their hands in boxes that they believed these animals inhabited. Children also completed a questionnaire measure of trait anxiety. Child-reported temperament moderated the effect that threat information has on the physiological component of the fear emotion. Fear information is, therefore, a possible mechanism through which temperament leads children to acquire animal fears.     

Personality and performance in real-world competitions: Testing trait activation of fear of negative evaluation,dispositional reinvestment,and athletic identity in the field

ObjectivesBased on the trait activation principle, researchers have tested whether personality traits are capable of predicting sport performance (under pressure). Typically, however, these investigations followed experimental approaches in the laboratory and only rarely in the field. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to test for the generalizability of findings gained in these experimental studies and to investigate potential trait activation for real-world performance in competitions. Based on prior studies on the prediction of performance under pressure, the selected personality traits involved fear of negative evaluation, dispositional reinvestment, and athletic identity.DesignPersonality traits were used as predictors for low-pressure and high-pressure basketball free-throw performance.MethodFirst, 53 basketball players completed trait questionnaires. Second, directly prior to performance assessments, participants reported on perceived importance, their somatic and cognitive state anxiety, and confidence. Third, free-throw performance was assessed in a low-pressure condition (i.e., successful free-throw percentage for 30 attempts) and repeatedly in 12 high-pressure conditions within real basketball matches (i.e., successful free-throw percentage for total attempts).ResultsTwo main findings were identified: First, none of the traits predicted performance under low pressure. Second, under high-pressure, only fear of negative evaluation as well as state anxiety were significantly negatively associated with performance in competitions.ConclusionThese results extend existing literature and add applied and ecologically valid empirical support for the relevance of anxiety-related traits (i.e., fear of negative evaluation) and states for performance under pressure in real-world competitions, emphasizing the importance of self-presentational considerations in athletes when the stakes are high.     

Behavioral avoidance tests and disgust in contamination fears: distinctions from trait anxiety

Much of the existing literature examining the role of disgust is limited to specific phobia. Recent research has begun to examine the role of disgust in contamination fear, a subtype of obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Through the use of behavioral avoidance tasks (BATs), the current study was designed to examine the role of disgust in people with contamination fears, with attention to distinguishing high and low trait anxiety. From a large screening of undergraduate students, three groups were formed based on their level of contamination fear and level of trait anxiety: contamination fearful ( n = 12 ), high-trait anxiety ( n = 11 ), and low trait anxiety ( n = 15 ). Subjects were asked to engage in six different BATs corresponding to six domains of disgust (food, animals, body products, body envelope violations, death, and sympathetic magic). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed significant differences between the contamination fearful group and the high trait anxiety group on the animal and sympathetic magic BATs. Significant differences on the food, animal, body envelope violations, and death BATs were also found between the contamination fearful group and the low-trait anxious group. The findings modestly support the importance of disgust in contamination fears. Implications for the study of disgust in contamination fear are provided.     

Trait Anxiety and Fear Responses to Safety Cues: Stimulus Generalization or Sensitization?

Abnormal fear responding to threat cues may contribute to the aetiology and maintenance of persistent fears and pathological anxiety. Chronic anxiety may also involve abnormal fear responding to ??safety?? cues, which do not signal danger. Yet investigations of fear responding to acquired safety cues are scarce and the basis of such responding remains unclear. Moreover, previous studies do not distinguish between stimulus generalization (an associative mechanism based on perceptual similarity between threat and safety cues) and sensitization (a non-associative mechanism whereby fear responses to any novel, intense, or fear-related stimulus are temporarily elevated). This study investigated responses to acquired safety cues in volunteers with varying trait anxiety, using a novel fear conditioning paradigm designed to distinguish between effects of trait anxiety on generalization and sensitization. The paradigm used three conditioned stimuli: a threat cue (CS+) and two safety cues (CS?), one perceptually similar to the CS+ and one perceptually dissimilar. Conditioned fear to these cues was indexed by fear potentiation of the startle blink reflex, skin conductance responses, and self-report. To examine how trait anxiety moderated responses to safety cues, participants were divided into high and low trait anxiety subgroups. Startle, skin conductance, and self-reported fear measures indicated that generalization of fear occurred for the safety cue which resembled the threat cue, but not for the perceptually dissimilar safety cue, consistent with the stimulus generalization hypothesis. There was some evidence that stimulus generalization was exaggerated in anxious individuals. The current study sheds light on the mechanism by which fear responses to safety cues arise in healthy individuals, and offers some insight into the influence of this mechanism in chronic anxiety.     

Links between rational and irrational beliefs,trait anxiety and fear of COVID 19

IntroductionOur beliefs and knowledge influence the way we act, react, or adapt to an aversive situation such as the current COVID-19 pandemic. The purpose of this study is to explore factors that may influence perceived fear of COVID-19.MethodologyThree hundred and forty-two people from the general population participated in this study. The participants completed an online anamnestic questionnaire that included questions regarding feelings of vulnerability to illness, fear of COVID-19, rational and irrational beliefs about COVID-19, and trait anxiety.ResultsA stepwise regression analysis showed that trait anxiety, irrational and rational beliefs, and having comorbidities linked to severe forms of the disease were associated with perceived vulnerability concerning health and fear of COVID-19.DiscussionThis study seems to underline the importance of pre-existing vulnerabilities that were exacerbated during the pandemic.     

Family influences on dysfunctional thinking in anxious children

Anxious children are found to interpret ambiguous stories in a negative way. The current study attempted to examine the possible influence of parental fear and parental interpretation bias on the maintenance of such an interpretation bias. Children varying in level of anxiety (n=25) and their parents, filled in a questionnaire to measure their own fears, and gave their interpretations concerning nine ambiguous stories, relevant for childhood ‘interactional’ anxieties: social anxiety, separation anxiety, and generalized anxiety. Then, parents were asked to talk with their children about three of the stories. After the family discussion the children had to give their final interpretations. Results indicated that parents' self‐reported fear level and interpretation bias were associated with children's interpretation bias before the family discussion. However, no evidence was found for the idea that parents maintain or enhance the interpretation bias of their children. That is, irrespective of parental fear and parental interpretation bias, children interpreted the ambiguous stories as less negative after discussing them with their parents. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Test anxiety,sentence comprehension,and recognition memory

Abstract

The present study explored the relationships between trait and state test anxiety of students, and comprehension and recognition memory for sentences. The results demonstrated that test anxiety effects could be found in comprehension-based recognition memory for sentences under conditions that minimized complex retrieval operations. Comprehension was related to the test anxiety deficit, supporting the hypothesis that anxiety-recognition relations were mediated by anxiety-comprehension and comprehension-recognition relations. However, a partial correlation analysis suggested that this comprehension-deficit hypothesis is not adequate to explain the total deficit. Elaborative processes were suggested as a potential contributor to the findings.     

Pre- and Postpartum Fear of Childbirth in Nulliparous and Parous Women

The link between fear of childbirth and theories of anxiety in general is discussed. A possible expression of trait (T-fear) and state (S-fear) aspects of fear of childbirth was investigated in 77 nulliparous and 85 parous women based on data from gestational week 32, at 2 hours and at 5 weeks after childbirth. Data are based on the State Trait Anxiety Inventory and the Wijma Delivery Expectancy/Experience Questionnaire. According to their scores on the Wijma Delivery Expectancy/Experience Questionnaire during late pregnancy, women were divided into 3 groups: high, moderate and low levels of fear of childbirth. In gestational week 32, women in the low level of fear of childbirth group had lower trait anxiety than those in the moderate level of fear of childbirth group, who had lower trait anxiety than the women in the high level of fear of childbirth group. Nulliparous women had a higher level of fear of childbirth but a lower level of trait anxiety than did parous women. There was a significant decreasing trend in fear of childbirth from 2 hours to 5 weeks after delivery, in a parallel way for all 3 groups. Differences in fear of childbirth between nulliparous and parous women disappeared after delivery. These findings suggest that fear of childbirth comprises a considerable part of T-fear, with the risk of a vicious cycle, i.e. that during labour women experience what they are afraid of, which also influences the women's postpartum cognitive appraisal of the delivery.     

The longitudinal relationship between fear of positive evaluation and fear of negative evaluation

Available research suggests that fear of negative evaluation and fear of positive evaluation are related but distinct constructs that each contribute to social anxiety, implying a need to focus on these fears in treatment. Yet, this research is almost entirely based on cross-sectional data. We examined the longitudinal relationship between fears of positive and negative evaluation over three time points in a sample of undergraduate students. We tested competing models consistent with two basic positions regarding these fears: (1) that fear of positive evaluation only appears to affect social anxiety because it arises from the same, single underlying trait as fear of negative evaluation, and (2) fears of positive and negative evaluation are correlated, but clearly distinct, constructs. The best-fitting model was an autoregressive latent-trajectory model in which each type of fear had a separate trait-like component. The correlation between these trait-like components appeared to fully account for the relationships between these constructs over time. This investigation adds to the evidence in support of the second position described above: fear of positive evaluation is best interpreted as a separate construct from fear of negative evaluation.     

Behavioral validation of the Childhood Anxiety Sensitivity Index in children

Examined the construct validity of the Childhood Anxiety Sensitivity Index (CASI) in young children through the use of a behavioral challenge task. Elementary-school children completed the CASI as well as self-report measures of state and trait anxiety and subjective fear prior to and immediately following a stair-stepping task designed to increase physiological arousal. Results indicate that the CASI was a significant predictor of the degree of state anxiety and subjective fear reported in response to the challenge task, even after controlling for pretask levels of state anxiety and fear, respectively. Additionally, the CASI predicted changes in fear experienced in response to the challenge task. The findings lend support to the validity of the CASI in preadolescent children and suggest that the CASI possesses unique clinical utility relative to measures of trait anxiety. However, results of this study must be interpreted cautiously, because a large portion of the variance in response to arousal was left unaccounted for by the CASI and the overall model.     

Discrimination between safe and unsafe stimuli mediates the relationship between trait anxiety and return of fear

Individuals with anxiety disorders show deficits in the discrimination between a cue that predicts an aversive outcome and a safe stimulus that predicts the absence of that outcome. This impairment has been linked to increased spontaneous recovery of fear following extinction, however it is unknown if there is a link between discrimination and return of fear in a novel context (i.e. context renewal). It is also unknown if impaired discrimination mediates the relationship between trait anxiety and either spontaneous recovery or context renewal. The present study used a differential fear conditioning paradigm to examine the relationships between trait anxiety, discrimination learning, spontaneous recovery and context renewal in healthy volunteers. Fear learning was assessed using continuous ratings of US expectancy and subjective ratings of fear. Discrimination mediated the relationships between trait anxiety and both spontaneous recovery and context renewal such that elevated trait anxiety was associated with poorer discrimination, which in turn was associated with increased fear at test phases. Results are discussed in terms of the genesis and maintenance of anxiety disorders.     

Colour-identification of differentially valenced words in anxiety

Abstract

Two groups of individuals, one high in trait anxiety and the other low in trait anxiety, performed a Stroop task in which threat, neutral, and pleasant words were presented. The results indicated clear differences between the high- and low-trait groups in their performance on this task. The low-trait group's performance was similar for all three types of sitmuli, whereas the high-trait group's responses were fastest for pleasant stimuli and slowest for threat-related stimuli. A recognition task to examine incidental learning of the “irrelevant” Stroop words showed that whilst the high-trait group had a stronger tendency to respond positively to all trials (critical and distractor) than the low-trait group, there were no differences in sensitivity between the two groups.     

Cross-cultural aspects of fears in African children and adolescents

The purpose of this study was to compare level and type of fears in Nigerian and Kenyan children using the Fear Survey Schedule for Children, Revised (FSSC-R; [Ollendick, T.H. (1983). Reliability and validity of the Revised Fear Survey Schedule for Children (FSSC-R). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 21, 685-692]). A total of 852 males and females between the ages of 8 and 17 were surveyed. Results indicated that Nigerian children reported significantly higher total fear than Kenyan children and that scores from both countries were higher than those found in the United States, Australia and China. This suggests that the cultures of Kenya and Nigeria may share a common variable that makes reporting of fears greater than that reported by children of other world cultures. In addition, Christian children in both countries reported higher levels of fear on several factors than Muslim children, indicating that Islamic beliefs may encourage children to report less fear or to deal with their fears better than Christian beliefs. Finally, children between the ages of 8 and 12 reported greater fear of the unknown than children between 13 and 17 years of age. Overall, these findings suggest that important cultural, religious and age differences exist for levels of childhood fears reported in Nigeria and Kenya.     

Anxiety sensitivity as a predictor of panic disorder symptoms: a prospective 3-year study

Background and Objectives: Anxiety sensitivity (AS) is the fear of anxiety symptoms, a feature proven to be an important vulnerability factor for anxiety pathogenesis. The aim of this study was to examine whether AS (as well as its factors) predicts the onset of panic disorder symptoms when controlling for the contribution of trait anxiety.

Design: We conducted a prospective 3 year follow up study.

Methods: The participants, students at the Humanities and Social Sciences in Zagreb (N?=?1087), completed an Anxiety Sensitivity Index and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Trait form) and, after a period of three years, were asked to self-assess criteria for panic disorder (according to the DSM-5).

Results: The predictive validity of AS for the onset of panic disorder symptoms, regardless of trait anxiety, was confirmed. Furthermore, the physical concerns dimension of AS was the only significant predictor of panic disorder symptoms. The optimal cutoff score of 25 on the ASI provides poor to moderate accuracy indices in detecting participants who will manifest panic disorder symptoms in the next three years.

Conclusion: This study contributes to our current understanding of AS as a prospective risk factor for panic disorder symptoms.     

From fears of evaluation to social anxiety: The longitudinal relationships and neural basis in healthy young adults

BackgroundSocial anxiety disorder (SAD) is a common mental health problem, and its core cognitive manifestation is the persistent fear of being evaluated, including both negatively (FNE) and positively (FPE). This study aimed to examine the longitudinal relationships of FNE, FPE and SAD and explore their neural basis.MethodsThree samples were retrieved in this study. First, the data of 649 college students who completed a survey and fMRI scan were used to explore the neural basis of FNE, FPE, and SAD symptoms. Next, the data of 450 participants who completed the same survey twice were used to examine the longitudinal relationships of the variables. Finally, the overlapping of the two samples (N = 288) who completed two surveys and the fMRI scan were used to establish a brain-behavior model.ResultsBoth FNE and FPE predicted SAD, and SAD also predicted FPE. The neural signals of subregions in prefrontal cortex were correlated with the scores of FNE, FPE and SAD. Abnormal prefrontal signals influenced SAD symptoms via fears of evaluation.ConclusionsOur findings explain the behavioral and neural underpinnings of social anxiety from a fear of evaluation angle. This contributes to a better theorical understanding of SAD and clinical practice.     

The gulf war: Distressful reactions to scud missiles attacks

This study investigated the relationships among coping strategies, trait anxiety and distressful reactions (State anxiety and fears and symptoms) of Israeli civilians under missile attack during the 1991 Gulf war. During the war sixty-six subjects (46 females and 20 males) completed a questionnaire that measured their distressful reactions and included fears in various situations (e.g., during the night, in the sealed room) and various symptoms (e.g., sleep disturbances, sensitivity to noise). In addition each subject completed the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS, Endler & Parker, 1990a), a multidimensional self-report measure of coping which measures three major coping strategies: task-oriented, emotion-oriented and avoidance-oriented. Subjects also completed the State and Trait anxiety scales of the Endler Multidimensional Anxiety Scales (EMAS, Endler, Edwards, & Vitelli, 1991). The state anxiety scales measure two components of the individual's state anxiety, cognitive worry and autonomic emotional reactions. The trait anxiety scales measure the individual's predisposition to experience anxiety in four different situations: social evaluation, physical danger, ambiguous situations and daily routines. The results showed that individuals who used emotion-oriented coping more frequently, experienced more state anxiety and symptoms and fears, (i.e., experienced greater distress) during the war. Task-oriented and avoidance-oriented coping were not related to the distressful reactions. It was further found that subjects high on physical danger trait anxiety and social evaluation trait anxiety experienced greater fears and more symptoms (i.e., experienced greater distress) during the war. Persons high on social evaluation trait anxiety also experienced great cognitive-worry state anxiety. The results are discussed within the framework of the multidimensional model of stress, anxiety and coping (Endler, 1988; Endler & Parker, 1990a, 1990b) and the special characteristics of the Gulf war situation.     

Fear and Courage in Children: Two Sides of the Same Coin?

This study further investigated the construct of courage in children. Children aged 8–13 years (n = 51) were interviewed about the most courageous action that they had ever performed during their life, and to retrospectively rate their level of fear and courage experienced during that event. On a separate occasion, children also completed the Courage Measure for Children (CM-C) as an index of children’s general level of personal courage, as well as scales for assessing anxiety symptoms and sensation seeking. Results indicated that almost all children (i.e., 94%) indicated that they had carried out a courageous action at some point during their life, although the levels of fear and courage associated with these acts varied considerably. Further, there was no relation between fear and courage reported for the courageous action, but these variables were significantly correlated with respectively anxiety symptoms and personal courage as indexed by the CM-C. Finally, a significant positive correlation was observed between sensation seeking and personal courage, indicating that children who are more thrill and adventure seeking are generally also more courageous. It is concluded that fear and courage in children are largely unrelated and not just two sides of the same coin. The implications of these results for the etiology and treatment of childhood anxiety problems are discussed.     

Trait anxiety moderation of the effects of life stress on state anxiety

Many theories of anxiety have predicted and much previous research has indicated a person × situation interaction between stressors and trait anxiety. This study examined the hypothesized role of individual differences in trait anxiety in the relationship between naturally occurring stressors and state anxiety scores. Two hundred eighty-seven college undergraduates completed the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, which provides both state and trait anxiety measures, and the Life Experiences Survey, which provides a measure of the amount of stress a person has undergone in the previous year. Trait anxiety scores were divided into quartiles and correlations between state anxiety scores and Life Experiences Survey scores and multiple regressions for trait anxiety and life stress to predict state anxiety were computed within each quartile. The results were that only in the first quartile was there a significant correlation between life stress and state anxiety, which was contrary to the predictions of state-trait anxiety theory. The validity of state-trait anxiety theory, as it relates to life stress, was questioned.