Attributional Style and Personality as Predictors of Happiness and Mental Health

This paper contains two studies which set out to examine to what extent attributional style (internal, stable, global) and personality traits predicted happiness and psychiatric symptoms in a normal, non-clinical, population of young people in their early twenties. Two hundred and three participants completed five questionnaires: the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ) (version one & version two), Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, Oxford Happiness Inventory, and Langner 22-Item Measure. Sample 1 (n = 120) completed ASQ version one (in both positive and negative situations) and sample 2 (n = 83) completed ASQ version two (in expanded negative situations). Regressional analysis showed that ASQ (in both versions) was the significant predictor of happiness and mental health accounting for 20% to 38% of variances. The ASQ was significantly associated with extraversion and neuroticism. Further, with happiness and mental health as dependent variables and attributional style, personality traits, and demographic variables as independent variables respectively, extraversion and attributional stability (in positive situations) were the significant predictors of happiness accounting for 59% of the total variance whilst neuroticism and psychoticism were the significant predictors of mental health accounting for 53% of the total variance. The results indicated that optimistic attributional style in positive situations was a stronger predictor of self-reported happiness than mental health and pessimistic attributional style in negative situations was a predictor of both happiness and mental health. Extraverts tended to have optimistic explanatory style for positive outcomes whereas neurotics tended to have pessimistic explanatory style for negative outcomes.     

Explanatory style and Immunoglobulin A (IgA).

The construct of explanatory style has been related to numerous aspects of human psychology, including health. Our research has focused on the effects of various psychological variables on the immune system, in particular Immunoglobulin A (IgA). We had participants fill out the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ), the predominant measure of explanatory style, and assayed saliva samples for secretory IgA. No relationship was observed between overall ASQ score and IgA, or composite optimism score and IgA. However, we observed significant negative correlations between both the composite pessimism score and IgA, as well as the hopelessness score and IgA. Pessimistic explanatory style may therefore be related to immune system deficits and poor health.     

Explanatory style and immunoglobulin A (IgA)

The construct of explanatory style has been related to numerous aspects of human psychology, including health. Our research has focused on the effects of various psychological variables on the immune system, in particular Immunoglobulin A (IgA). We had participants fill out the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ), the predominant measure of explanatory style, and assayed saliva samples for secretory IgA. No relationship was observed between overall ASQ score and IgA, or composite optimism score and IgA. However we observed significant negative correlations between both the composite pessimism score and IgA, as well as the hopelessness score and IgA. Pessimistic explanatory style may therefore be related to immune system deficits and poor health.     

Attributional style, dreaming and depression

The relationship between attributional style, depression and dreaming was explored by analysing dream reports from 80 subjects for evidence of attributional style using the Content Analysis of Verbatim Material (CAVE) technique. These scores were then compared with a waking measure of attributional style—the Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire (EASQ) and with levels of depression as measured by the BDI. Contrary to expectations, dream attributional style did not correlate with waking attributional style, nor was there a significant correlation between internal, global and stable attributional style in dreams and level of depression. Results did support previous research that an internal, stable and global waking attributional style correlates with depression.     

Attributional style predicts causes of negative life events on the Attributional Style Questionnaire

The causes cited by 218 participants for the hypothetical positive and negative life events on the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ) and the dimensional ratings of the causes were examined to determine the match between the dimensional and categorical definitions of attributional style. Optimists (n = 105) and pessimists (n = 113) used different types of causes to explain the negative ASQ events, but not the positive events. However, optimists' and pessimists' causal explanations shared a number of features. The findings suggest that attributional styles depend, in part, on the event being explained and demonstrate that the ASQ events elicit specific types of causes.     

Explanatory style across the life span: evidence for stability over 52 years

Analyzed explanatory style across the life span. 30 Ss whose average age was 72 responded to questions about their current life and provided diaries or letters written in their youth, an average of 52 years earlier. A blind content analysis of explanatory style derived from these 2 sources revealed that explanatory style for negative events was stable throughout adult life (r = .54, p less than .002). In contrast, there appeared to be no stability of explanatory style for positive events between the same 2 time periods. These results suggest that explanatory style for negative events may persist across the life span and may constitute an enduring risk factor for depression, low achievement, and physical illness.     

Measuring Optimism in Organizations: Development of a Workplace Explanatory Style Questionnaire

Some researchers measure optimism by analysing explanations for hypothetical scenarios in explanatory style questionnaires. The most commonly used instrument, the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ), has been shown to predict success in business, education and sport. However, these predictions were achieved by using composite scores of subscales. Our analysis of 15 measures revealed the ASQ and many other explanatory style questionnaires have low internal consistency. Furthermore, the majority of these measures use situations that have poor face validity for corporate applications, while some work-specific scenarios are only relevant to narrow domains such as selling insurance. To fulfil the need for a work-related explanatory style measure that could assess levels of optimism in any organizational setting, we developed the Workplace Explanations Survey (WES). This 5-factor measure was tested on a sample of 341 individuals working in a range of organizations and it has good internal consistency. We anticipate the WES will stimulate research into workplace optimism and provide clearer insights for optimism training, thus boosting both individual and organizational success.     

MILITARY AGGRESSION AND RISK PREDICTED BY EXPLANATORY STYLE

Abstract— The explanatory style scores of George Bush and Saddam Hussein were derived using the content analysts of verbatim explanations technique for periods preceding military actions or political conflict These leaders' actions were rated scales of aggression-passivity and risk-caution Regression I correlational analyses show that increased levels of option before conflict predicted heightened aggression and risk taking, whereas increased levels of pessimism prior to an event predicted passivity and caution     

Attributional style and athletic performance: Strategic optimism and defensive pessimism

ObjectivesTwo studies examined the relationship between explanatory style measured with the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ), Peterson, Semmel, von Baeyer, Abramson, Metalsky, and Seligman (1982. The Attributional Style Questionnaire. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 6, 287–299) and athletic performance.DesignCorrelational designs were used to examine relationships between the predictor variables of attributional style and dispositional optimism and the criterion variable of athletic performance. Study one also examined the effect of soccer match outcome as a moderational factor.MethodFor study 1, 20 male soccer players completed the ASQ and their performance across eight matches was videotaped and coded on a variety of measures (goals, fouls, attempted passes, completed passes). For study 2, 18 female basketball players completed both the ASQ and the Life Orientation Test (LOT), Scheier and Carver (1978. Optimism, coping and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Psychology, 4, 219–247). Relationships between these scales and a variety of performance measures were examined.ResultsConsistent with findings from Seligman, Nolen-Hoeksema, Thornton, N., and Thornton, K. (1990. Explanatory style as a mechanism of disappointing athletic performance. Psychological Science, 1, 143–146), a significant positive relationship was found between the ASQ measure of optimism and athletic performance among the soccer players in study 1. In addition, optimistic soccer players demonstrated better performance during a loss than did pessimists, whereas no significant performance differences were found between these two groups during a subsequent win. Findings from study 2 were less consistent, revealing both positive (optimists had more assists and steals) and negative (optimists had fewer rebounds and more fouls) relationships. A subsequent content analysis of the open-ended responses on the ASQ suggests that the observed negative relationships were a function of these female athletes attributing negative outcomes to lack of effort (defensive pessimism) as opposed to lack of ability (depressive pessimism).ConclusionsThe findings highlight the need to differentiate between these two forms of pessimism and their differential impact on performance. The importance of including an assessment of perceived controllability as an attributional dimension in future research is discussed.     

The relation between dimensions of attachment and internalizing or externalizing problems during adolescence

The authors examined the relation between dimensions of attachment and internalizing and externalizing problems in 15- to 16-year-old adolescents (n = 62) who completed the Attachment Style Questionnaire (ASQ; J. Feeney, P. Noller, & M. Hanrahan, 1994) and the Youth Self-Report (YSR; T. M. Achenbach, 1991). In total, the ASQ dimensions accounted for 48% of the variance in scores on the broad YSR internalizing problem scale. Three ASQ dimensions (confidence, discomfort with closeness, preoccupation with relationships) accounted for unique variance. Girls exhibited higher problem scores than did boys even when the authors considered ASQ scores. The authors observed comparable results for the anxious/depressed subscales. The confidence, discomfort, and preoccupation dimensions predicted scores on the withdrawn subscale. The authors observed weak relations or no relations between results on the ASQ and the externalizing problems scale. In conclusion, dimensions of attachment are powerful predictors of internalizing problems in adolescents. The authors discussed the potential cause and effect relationship between attachment variables and self-reported problems.     

Attributional style and self-esteem as predictors of psychological well being

Background: this study sets out to examine to what extent attributional style (internal, stable, global) and self-esteem predicted positive affect and self-reported happiness in a normal, non-clinical, population of young people in their early 20s. Method: 88 participants completed five questionnaires: Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ in both positive and negative situations), Bradburn Affect Scales (Positive Affect, Negative Affect, and Affect Balance Scale), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale Gurin Happiness Measure, and Oxford Happiness Inventory (OHI). Results: regressional analysis showed that the ASQ was the significant predictor of happiness accounting for 18% of variance. The ASQ in positive and negative situations was significantly inversely correlated with self-esteem. Further, with happiness (the OHI) as dependent variable and attributional style, self-esteem, and demographic variables as independent variables, self-esteem and attributional style (in positive situations) were the significant predictors of happiness accounting for 55% of the total variance. Conclusion: the results indicated that optimistic attributional style in positive situations was a stronger predictor of self-reported happiness than optimistic attributional style in negative situations. The implications of the findings are discussed in terms of cognitive strategies for changing pessimism into optimism thus enhancing happiness or psychological well-being.     

Long-term consequences of childhood physical and psychological maltreatment

This study assessed whether some of the correlates of learned helplessness—depression, low self-esteem, and a maladaptive attributional style—are long-term consequences of child abused. In this study, 260 subjects were identified as physically abused, psychologically abused, both physically and psychologically abused, or nonabused, based on responses to the Child Abuse Questionnaire (CAQ). Subjects were tested for levels of nonclinical depression via the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), for levels of self-esteem via the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE), and for the adaptiveness of attributional style via the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ). It was hypothesized that each of the three abuse groups would differ from the control group on the three dependent measures; differences among the three abuse groups were also explored. Three one-way analyses of variance indicated that (1) BDI scores reflected a greater tendency toward depression in subjects reporting both types of abuse than in nonabused subjects or in subjects reporting either psychological or physical abuse, (2) subjects reporting psychological abuse only or both psychological and physical abuse showed lower self-esteem than did nonabused subjects, and (3) abused subjects did not seem to exhibit a more maladaptive attributional style than that of nonabused subjects. In addition, multiple linear regression analyses pointed to psychological abuse as a critical variable in predicting levels of depression, self-esteem, and attributional style, when physical abuse effects were controlled. Controlling for the effects of psychological abuse, however, indicated that physical abuse did not significantly contribute to the variance in these variables. Implications for the learned helplessness model and for future research are discussed. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Depressive Attributional Style: The Role of Self-Esteem

Two studies evaluate the role of self-esteem in the depressive attributional style. In the first study, college students completed four measures of depression, four measures of self-esteem, and the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ). Regression analyses revealed that across measures, self-esteem was a better predictor of attributional style for negative events than was depression. In study two, psychiatric inpatients completed a measure of self-esteem, a measure of depression, and the ASQ. In this clinical sample, self-esteem and depression were highly correlated and both predicted ASQ scores. But when variation in depth of depression and social desirability were removed statistically from the association between self-esteem and attributions for negative outcomes, there remained a significant association between self-esteem and internal, stable, and global attributions for negative outcomes. Controlling for the variation in self-esteem eliminated the relation between depression and depressive attributional style. These findings demonstrate the importance of self-esteem in depressive attributional style in both normal and clinical populations, as well as potential differences in the relations among self-esteem, depression, and attributional style in clinical versus normal samples.     

Law School Performance Predicted by Explanatory Style

The explanatory styles of 387 law students were assessed prior to law school using the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ). Longitudinal performance measures were collected throughout law school and related to each student's initial explanatory style. In contrast to studies with undergraduates, students who made stable, global, and internal attributions for negative events combined with the converse attributions for success (typically called pessimists) outperformed more optimistic students on measures of grade point averages and law journal success. We discuss the limitations of current attributional re-search methodologies and suggest the prudent and cautious perspective necessary for law or skill-based professions may account for our findings. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Attributional Style Predicts Causes of Negative Life Events on the Attributional Style Questionnaire

Abstract

The causes cited by 218 participants for the hypothetical positive and negative life events on the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ) and the dimensional ratings of the causes were examined to determine the match between the dimensional and categorical definitions of attributional style. Optimists (n = 105) and pessimists (n = 113) used different types of causes to explain the negative ASQ events, but not the positive events. However, optimists' and pessimists' causal explanations shared a number of features. The findings suggest that attributional styles depend, in part, on the event being explained and demonstrate that the ASQ events elicit specific types of causes.     

Personality correlates of attributional style

Previous research, much of it based on the learned helplessness model of depression, suggested that a wide variety of personality variables might be related to attributional style. The Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ; Peterson et al., 1982) and Comrey Personality Scales (CPS; Comrey, 1970) were administered to 329 subjects, and their scores were subjected to correlational and multiple regression analysis. The CPS scales were also factor analyzed, and the resulting scores were correlated with ASQ scores. Results indicated that a variety of personality variables have statistically significant relationships with attributional style, that these variables show significant positive relationships with internal, stable, and global attributions for positive events and significant negative relationships with these same attributions for negative events, and that an Activity-Extraversion-Stability factor demonstrates the strongest relationships with attributional style. Findings are interpreted within a revised theoretical framework, and emphasis is placed on understanding the personality correlates of attributional style for adequate interpretation of the concept.     

Adolescent stress: Evaluation of the factor structure of the Adolescent Stress Questionnaire (ASQ‐N)

Moksnes, U. K., Byrne, D. G., Mazanov, J. & Espnes, G. A. (2010). Adolescent stress: Evaluation of the factor structure of the Adolescent Stress Questionnaire (ASQ‐N). Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 51, 203–209. The present study reports an evaluation of the factor structure of the Norwegian version of the Adolescent Stress Questionnaire (ASQ‐N) among 723 students. Principal components analysis (PCA) revealed nine internally consistent dimensions of adolescent stress. Scales constructed from this PCA correlated positively with measures of depression and anxiety and negatively with self‐esteem. Girls reported higher stress levels than boys in seven of the nine scales and age was also positively correlated with the scale scores of adolescent stress. The results revealed that the instrument has potential for measuring adolescent stress. The stability of the ASQ‐N needs to be tested repeatedly, across cohorts and over time, to establish the adequacy for use in Norwegian adolescent studies.     

Optimism, Pessimism, and Friendship

Peterson and Bossio (1991) have proposed that pessimistic people, by default, will have predominantly pessimistic friends. We tested that notion by examining the correlation between the scores of close friends on both separate and direct measures of optimism and pessimism (via the O/P instrument) and a measure of explanatory style (EASQ), which purports to tap optimistic-pessimistic tendencies as a bipolar dimension. In two studies, only pairs of male friends yielded significant correlations, and only on the direct optimism measure (r= .65, both studies). Another significant correlation (r= .37) was found in Study 2 between sensation seeking scores of mixed-sex friends. No between-friend correlations were found in Study 2 for loneliness and assertiveness. Finally, both pessimism, as directly measured, and loneliness were correlated with typical friendship duration (r=-.24 and-.32 respectively), while none of the personality measures were correlated with number of reported friends.     

Gastroesophageal reflux disease: alexithymia and attachment style

Alexithymia and its relation with attachment style were evaluated in a group of 69 patients (men, M age = 46.4 yr., SD = 12.6; women, M age = 44.2 yr., SD = 14.4) affected by Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease. Two self-evaluation questionnaires were used for psychological evaluation, the 20 item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) and the Attachment Style Questionnaire (ASQ). The TAS-20 analysis showed that the clinical sample taken as a whole did not score in the alexithymic range. The inverse correlations between the Confidence ASQ subscale and the Difficulty Communicating Feelings TAS-20 subscale showed that communication of emotions could develop more easily within the framework of a relational context characterized by safety and confidence. In this group of patients this was represented by the referent caregiver.     

Optimism, Pessimism, and Friendship

Peterson and Bossio (1991) have proposed that pessimistic people, by default, will have predominantly pessimistic friends. We tested that notion by examining the correlation between the scores of close friends on both separate and direct measures of optimism and pessimism (via the O/P instrument) and a measure of explanatory style (EASQ), which purports to tap optimistic-pessimistic tendencies as a bipolar dimension. In two studies, only pairs of male friends yielded significant correlations, and only on the direct optimism measure (r= .65, both studies). Another significant correlation (r= .37) was found in Study 2 between sensation seeking scores of mixed-sex friends. No between-friend correlations were found in Study 2 for loneliness and assertiveness. Finally, both pessimism, as directly measured, and loneliness were correlated with typical friendship duration (r=-.24 and-.32 respectively), while none of the personality measures were correlated with number of reported friends.