The Effect of Response Bias on the Personality Inventory for DSM–5 (PID–5)

Valid self-report assessment of psychopathology relies on accurate and credible responses to test questions. There are some individuals who, in certain assessment contexts, cannot or choose not to answer in a manner typically representative of their traits or symptoms. This is referred to, most broadly, as test response bias. In this investigation, we explore the effect of response bias on the Personality Inventory for DSM–5 (PID–5; Krueger, Derringer, Markon, Watson, & Skodol, 2013 Krueger, R. F., Derringer, J., Markon, K. E., Watson, D., & Skodol, A. E. (2013). The Personality Inventory for DSM–5 (PID–5)–Adult (Full version). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. [Google Scholar]), a self-report instrument designed to assess the pathological personality traits used to inform diagnosis of the personality disorders in Section III of DSM–5. A set of Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory Restructured Form (MMPI–2–RF; Ben-Porath & Tellegen, 2008 Tellegen, A., & Ben-Porath, Y. S (2008). MMPI–2–RF technical manual. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. [Google Scholar]/2011 Ben-Porath, Y. S., & Tellegen, A. (2011). MMPI–2–RF manual for administration, scoring, and interpretation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. (Original work published 2008) [Google Scholar]) validity scales, which are used to assess and identify response bias, were employed to identify individuals who engaged in either noncredible overreporting (OR) or underreporting (UR), or who were deemed to be reporting or responding to the items in a “credible” manner—credible responding (CR). A total of 2,022 research participants (1,587 students, 435 psychiatric patients) completed the MMPI–2–RF and PID–5; following protocol screening, these participants were classified into OR, UR, or CR response groups based on MMPI–2–RF validity scale scores. Groups of students and patients in the OR group scored significantly higher on the PID–5 than those students and patients in the CR group, whereas those in the UR group scored significantly lower than those in the CR group. Although future research is needed to explore the effects of response bias on the PID–5, results from this investigation provide initial evidence suggesting that response bias influences scale elevations on this instrument.     

Learning to listen to trans and gender diverse children: A Response to Zucker (2018) and Steensma and Cohen-Kettenis (2018)

ABSTRACT

The authors answer recent responses by Steensma & Cohen-Kettenis (2018 Steensma, T. D., & Cohen-Kettenis, P. T. (2018). A critical commentary on “A critical commentary on follow-up studies and “desistence” theories about transgender and gender non-conforming children”. International Journal of Transgenderism. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/15532739.2018.1468292[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and Zucker (2018 Zucker, K. (2018). The myth of persistence: Response to AA critical commentary on follow-up studies and “Desistance” theories about transgender and gender non-conforming children. International Journal of Transgenderism. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/15532739.2018.1468293[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) to our critical commentary on “desistance” stereotypes and their underlying research on trans and gender diverse children (Temple Newhook et al., 2018 Temple Newhook, J., Pyne, J., Winters, K., Feder, S., Holmes, C., Tosh, J., … Pickett, S. (2018). A critical commentary on follow-up studies and “desistance” theories about transgender and gender-nonconforming children. International Journal of Transgenderism. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/15532739.2018.1456390[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). We provide clarification in the following areas: (1) the scope of our paper; (2) our support of longitudinal studies; (3) consequences of harm to trans and gender diverse children; (4) clinical practice implications; (5) concerns about validity of research methodology; and (6) the importance of learning to listen to trans and gender diverse children.     

Introduction to the Special Section: Linking the MMPI–2–RF to Contemporary Models of Psychopathology

This special section considers 9 independent articles that seek to link the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2–Restructured Form (MMPI–2–RF; Ben-Porath &; Tellegen, 2008/2011 Ben-Porath, Y. S., &; Tellegen, A. (2011). MMPI–2–RF (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 Restructured Form) manual. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. (Original work published 2008) [Google Scholar]) to contemporary models of psychopathology. Sellbom (this issue Sellbom, M. (this issue). Mapping the MMPI–2–RF Specific Problems scales onto extant psychopathology structures. Journal of Personality Assessment. doi:10.1080/00223891.2016.1206909[Taylor &; Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) maps the Specific Problems scales onto hierarchical psychopathology structures, whereas Romero, Toorabally, Burchett, Tarescavage, and Glassmire (this issue Romero, I. E., Toorabally, N., Burchett, D., Tarescavage, A. M., &; Glassmire, D. M. (this issue). Mapping the MMPI–2–RF Substantive scales onto internalizing, externalizing, and thought dysfunction dimensions in a forensic inpatient setting. Journal of Personality Assessment. doi:10.1080/00223891.2016.1223681[Taylor &; Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) and Shkalim, Almagor, and Ben-Porath (this issue Shkalim, E., Almagor, M., &; Ben-Porath, Y. S. (this issue). Examining current conceptualizations of psychopathology with the MMPI–2/MMPI–2–RF Restructured Clinical scales: Preliminary findings from a cross-cultural study. Journal of Personality Assessment. doi:10.1080/00223891.2016.1189429[Taylor &; Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) show evidence of linking the instruments' scales to diagnostic representations of common higher order psychopathology constructs. McCord, Achee, Cannon, Harrop, and Poynter (this issue McCord, D. M., Achee, M. C., Cannon, E. M., Harrop, T. M., &; Poynter, W. D. (this issue). Using the research domain criteria framework to explore associations between MMPI–2–RF constructs and physiological variables assessed by eye-tracker technology. Journal of Personality Assessment. doi:10.1080/00223891.2016.1228067[Taylor &; Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) link the MMPI–2–RF scales to psychophysiological constructs inspired by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) Research Domain Criteria. Sellbom and Smith (this issue Sellbom, M. (this issue). Mapping the MMPI–2–RF Specific Problems scales onto extant psychopathology structures. Journal of Personality Assessment. doi:10.1080/00223891.2016.1206909[Taylor &; Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) find support for MMPI–2–RF scale hypotheses in covering personality psychopathology in general, whereas Klein Haneveld, Kamphuis, Smid, and Forbey (this issue Klein Haneveld, E., Kamphuis, J.H., Smid, W., &; Forbey, J. D. (this issue). Using MMPI–2–RF correlates to elucidate the PCL–R and its four facets in a sample of male forensic psychiatric patients. Journal of Personality Assessment. doi:10.1080/00223891.2016.1228655[Taylor &; Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) and Kutchen et al. (this issue Kutchen, T. J., Wygant, D. B., Tylicki, J. L., Dieter, A. M., Veltri, C. O., &; Sellbom, M. (this issue). Construct validity of the MMPI–2–RF Triarchic Psychopathy scales in correctional and collegiate samples. Journal of Personality Assessment. doi:10.1080/00223891.2016.1238829[Taylor &; Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) demonstrate the utility of the MMPI–2–RF in capturing contemporary conceptualizations of the psychopathic personality. Finally, Franz, Harrop, and McCord (this issue Franz, A. O., Harrop, T. M., &; McCord, D. M. (this issue). Examining the construct validity of the MMPI–2–RF Interpersonal Functioning scales using the Computerized Adaptive Test of Personality Disorder as a comparative framework. Journal of Personality Assessment. doi:10.1080/00223891.2016.1222394[Taylor &; Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) and Rogers et al. (this issue Rogers, M. L., Anestis, J. C., Harrop, T. M., Schneider, M., Bender, T. W., Ringer, F. B., &; Joiner, T. E. (this issue). Examination of MMPI–2–RF Substantive scales as indicators of acute suicidal affective disturbance components. Journal of Personality Assessment. doi:10.1080/00223891.2016.1222393[Taylor &; Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) mapped the MMPI–2–RF scales onto more specific transdiagnostic constructs reflecting interpersonal functioning and suicide behavior proneness, respectively.     

Perception-Movement Coupling in the Regulation of Step Lengths When Approaching an Obstacle

Experiment 1 showed that the control mechanism based on a perception–movement coupling observed in certain goal-directed movement tasks (De Rugy, Montagne, Buekers, & Laurent, 2000 De Rugy, A., Montagne, G., Buekers, M. J. and Laurent, M. 2000. The study of locomotor pointing in virtual reality: The validation of a test set-up. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 32: 515–520.  [Google Scholar]; Montagne, Cornus, Glize, Quaine, & Laurent, 2000 Montagne, G., Cornus, S., Glize, D., Quaine, F. and Laurent, M. 2000. A perception-action coupling type of control in long-jumping. Journal of Motor Behavior, 32: 37–44. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) can be extended to a stepping across an obstacle task. Regardless of the specificity of tasks, the initiation of regulations is a function of the amount of adjustment. Our participants organized their regulation later than long jumpers. Two additional experiments were conceived to investigate whether this control mechanism could be generalized to goal-directed locomotor displacements, with different constraints. The aim of Experiments 2 and 3 was to address the adaptation of this control mechanism by manipulating the obstacle width and the walking speed in a stepping across task. The results showed that the functioning of this control mechanism could be influenced by the spatiotemporal constraints. Participants' behavior depended on a perception–movement coupling. This study suggests the existence of a generic control mechanism based on a perception–movement coupling, and it emphasizes the adaptation of this type of control mechanism involved in goal-directed displacements.     

Cyberbullying Victimization in Adolescents as Related to Body Esteem,Social Support,and Social Self-Efficacy

ABSTRACT

The authors examined cyberbullying victimization in the context of issues of key importance to youth: body esteem, social support, and social self-efficacy. Research has found that traditional peer-bullying victimization is significantly correlated with low body esteem in Western societies, especially pertaining to weight (R. Puhl & J. Luedicke, 2012 Puhl, R., & Luedicke, J. (2012). Weight-based victimization among adolescents in the school setting: Emotional reactions and coping behaviors. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 41, 27–40. [Google Scholar]). Studies have also found a relationship among bullying victimization, appearance-related bullying, low body esteem, and psychosocial difficulties among youth (L. E. Park, R. M. Calogero, A.F. Young, & A. Diraddo, 2010 Park, L. E., Calogero, R. M., Young, A. F., & Diraddo, A. (2010). Appearance-Based Rejection Sensitivity predicts Body Dysmorphic Disorder symptoms and cosmetic surgery acceptance. Journal Of Social & Clinical Psychology, 29, 489–509. [Google Scholar]). However, the emergence of cyberbullying, characterized by its own special features (P. K. Smith et al., 2008 Smith, P. K., Mahdavi, J., Carvalho, M., Fisher, S., Russell, S., & Tippett, N. (2008). Cyberbullying: Its nature and impact in secondary school pupils. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 376–385. [Google Scholar]), has raised a salient need to explore the relationship between cyber victimization and body esteem, no less important with social framework, because both are key components in adolescents' lives that may be associated with cyberbullying victimization. The authors examined these relationships among 204 Israeli adolescents 14–16 years old. The results indicate a noteworthy prevalence (45%) of cyber victims. Cyber victimization is significantly correlated with low body esteem and low social support and social self-efficacy. Low body esteem and low social support predicted the probability of being a cyber victim. The results extend the knowledge about potential personal and social risk factors for cyber victimization during adolescence. Implications for specific intervention programs are discussed.     

Sanctifying Work: Effects on Satisfaction,Commitment, and Intent to Leave

Sanctification involves perceiving objects or events: (a) theistically by viewing them as having spiritual significance, or (b) nontheistically by viewing them as extraordinary and worthy of veneration and respect without any reference to a higher being. Previous research has found positive outcomes associated with sanctification, including increased satisfaction with marriage (Mahoney et al., 1999 Mahoney, A., Pargament, K. I., Jewell, T., Swank, A. B., Scott, E.Emery, E. 1999. Marriage and the spiritual realm: The role of proximal and distal religious constructs in marital functioning. Journal of Family Psychology, 13: 321–338. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), body image (Mahoney, Carels, et al., 2005 Mahoney, A., Carels, R. A., Pargament, K. I., Wachholtz, A., Leeper, L. E.Kaplar, M. 2005. The sanctification of the body and behavioral health patterns of college students. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 15: 221–238. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) and sexual intercourse (Murray-Swank, Pargament, & Mahoney, 2002 Murray-Swank, N. A., Pargament, K. I. and Mahoney, A. 2002. At the crossroads of sexuality and spirituality: The sanctification of sex by college students. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 15: 199–219.  [Google Scholar]) to name a few. This study extends these findings into the world of work by demonstrating that those who sanctify their jobs are more satisfied, more committed to their organization, and at the same time less likely to intend to leave.     

Which Domain of the PSY–5 Is Most Relevant to Substance Use?

Substance use has generally been related to lower levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness, but has evidenced relationships with other personality trait domains as well, including impulsivity. This study was conducted to determine which trait domain of personality is most related to substance use from the perspective of the Personality Psychopathology Five model (Harkness &; McNulty, 1994 Harkness, A. R., &; McNulty, J. L. (1994). The Personality Psychopathology Five (PSY–5): Issue from the pages of a diagnostic manual instead of a dictionary. In S. Strack &; M. Lorr (Eds.), Differentiating normal and abnormal personality (pp. 291–315). New York, NY: Springer. [Google Scholar]). Archival data were used from 2 clinical settings: 1 outpatient community mental health center and 1 inpatient Veteran's Affairs hospital. The outpatient sample was mostly female (58.9%), White (78.7%), and had a mean age of 33.01 (SD = 10.26). The inpatient sample was entirely male, predominantly White (91.5%), and had a mean age of 48.03 (SD = 13.88). Correlations were conducted to identify the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2–Restructured Form Personality Psychopathology Five scales (Ben-Porath &; Tellegen, 2008 Ben-Porath, Y. S., &; Tellegen, A. (2008). MMPI–2–RF: Manual for administration, scoring, and interpretation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. [Google Scholar]; Harkness et al., 2013 Harkness, A. R., McNulty, J. L., Finn, J. A., Reynolds, S. M., Shields, S. M., &; Arbisi, P. (2013). The MMPI–2–RF Personality and Psychopathology Five (PSY–5) scales: Development and validity research. Journal of Personality Assessment, 96, 140–150. doi:10.1080/00223891.2013.823439[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) that were significantly related to variables measuring substance use. Subsequent regression analyses revealed that Disconstraint was the only significant predictor in the majority (89%) of analyses. In the event Disconstraint was not the only significant predictor, it continued to exhibit the largest unique predictive impact in the regression models. These results suggest that Disconstraint is the Personality Psychopathology-Five dimension most relevant to substance use.     

Commentary Research on gene–environment interdependence: Honing the tools and examining the angles

The insightful overview by Sir Michael Rutter (this issue) on gene–environment interdependence comes about 10 years after the breakthrough Science publications on gene–environment interactions (G×E) involving the MAOA and 5-HTT genes by Caspi et al. (2002 Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E., Mill, J., Martin, J.Craig, I. W. 2002. Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297: 851–854. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2003 Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W.Harrington, H. 2003. Influence of life stress on depression: Moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science, 301: 386–389. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Since then, a field of research has burgeoned that has produced replications as well as intriguing new evidence of gene–environment interdependence. At the same time, however, the field has witnessed a growing scepticism about the relevance of studying gene–environment interactions and has seen replication failures (see Duncan & Keller, 2011 Duncan, L. E. and Keller, M. C. 2011. A critical review of the first 10 years of candidate gene-by-environment interaction research in psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168: 1041–1049. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Risch et al., 2009 Risch, N., Herell, R., Lehner, T., Liang, K.-Y., Eaves, L.Hoh, J. 2009. Interaction between the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR), stressful life events, and risk of depression: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 301: 2462–2471. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Against this backdrop, we comment and elaborate on several of the key issues raised by Rutter, and suggest some directions for future research on G×E. Specifically, we discuss (1) replication issues; (2) the crucial role of experiments in understanding gene–environment interdependence; (3) current unknowns with regard to differential susceptibility; and (4) clinical and practical implications of G×E research.     

Emotion and Appraisal Profiles of the Needs for Competence and Relatedness

This study examined the emotion and appraisal correlates of the needs for Competence and Relatedness. Using experience-sampling, fluctuations of competence and relatedness throughout a day's period were found to correspond to fluctuations in emotions and appraisals in ways theoretically consistent with the self-determination theory (Deci &; Ryan, 2000 Deci , E. L. , &; Ryan , R. M. ( 2000 ). The “what” and “why” of goal-pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior . Psychological Inquiry , 11 , 227 – 268 .[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Each need was related in specific ways to the six emotions examined (anger, sadness, fear, guilt, shame, and joy) and, more interesting, was characterized by a specific appraisal-profile. Implications of these findings for needs processes are discussed.     

Psychometric Properties of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–Adolescent (MMPI–A) Clinical,Content, and Supplementary Scales in a Forensic Sample

In this study, we evaluated the internal psychometric properties and external correlates of scores on the Clinical, Content, and Supplementary scales in a forensic sample of 496 adolescents (315 boys and 181 girls) who were court-ordered to receive psychological evaluations. We examined Cronbach's alpha coefficients, scale intercorrelation matrices, and frequencies of scale elevations. Further, we found varying degrees of support for the convergent and discriminant validity of scores on the MMPI–A (Butcher et al., 1992 Butcher, J. N., Williams, C. L., Graham, J. R., Archer, R. P., Tellegen, A., Ben-Porath, Y. S. and Kaemmer, B. 1992. MMPI–A (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–Adolescent): Manual for administration, scoring, and interpretation, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.  [Google Scholar]) Clinical, Content, and Supplementary scales. This study adds to the body of literature establishing the utility of the MMPI–A in forensic evaluations.     

Factorial invariance of the Rahim emotional quotient index

This study investigated the degree of factorial invariance of the 30-item Rahim Emotional Quotient Index (REQI) (Afzalur Rahim et al., 2002 Afzalur Rahim, M., Psenicka, C., Polychroniou, P., Zhao, J.-H., Yu, C.-S., Anita Chan, K., van Wyk, R. (2002). A model of emotional intelligence and conflict management strategies: A study in seven countries. The International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 10(4), 302–326. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/eb028955[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) across gender and language, using multiple group confirmatory factor analysis. Respondents were 341 full-time employed applicants to programmes in a South African Business School (females = 39.6%, African language group = 60.1%; non-African/Western language group = 39.9). With regard to age, the majority of the sample (25.5%) fell into the category 31–35 years. The Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square difference tests showed no statistically significant differences between different gender and language groups, with regard to factor structure, factor loadings, variances and covariance. The findings support the original five-factor structure of the REQI for the two language groups, as well as the two gender groups.     

Religiosity,Delinquency, and the Deterrent Effects of Informal Sanctions

Past research in deterrence theory suggests that informal social sanctions intervene in the effect of religiosity on criminal and delinquent behavior, such that more religious individuals tend to perceive stronger informal sanctions (Grasmick, Bursik and Cochran 1991a Grasmick , Harold G. , Robert J. Bursik Jr. , and John K. Cochran . 1991a. “Render unto Caesar What is Caesar's”: Religiosity and Taxpayers' Inclination to Cheat.” Sociological Quarterly 32(2):251–266.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Grasmick, Kinsey and Cochran 1991b Grasmick , Harold G. , Karyl Kinsey , and John K. Cochran . 1991b . “Denomination, Religiosity and Compliance with the Law: A Study of Adults.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 30 ( 1 ): 99 – 107 .[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). This study examines the influence of religiosity and social deterrence on college students' delinquent behavior, as measured by anticipated violation of a university's alcohol policy. Data were collected through a survey of undergraduate students (n = 484) at a large South-Midwestern public university that instituted a campus alcohol ban. The survey took place three months after the ban was implemented and asked students about religiosity, perceptions of informal deterrence, and expectations of violating the policy. Results partially support the hypothesis that religiosity predicts conformity primarily through the deterrent threat of informal sanctions. Religiosity increased perceived threats of shame and embarrassment, which in turn reduced the likelihood of anticipated policy violation. When controlling for demographics, college lifestyle, attitudes, and past drinking behavior, shame remained a significant predictor of expected policy violation, but embarrassment did not. Also, contrary to expectations, one measure of fundamentalist religiosity (biblical literalness) retained a direct main effect on intended compliance, even when taking informal sanctions into account. Theoretical, methodological, and policy implications are discussed.     

The complexities of undertaking counselling evaluation in the workplace

There is a long-standing debate over whether evaluation is an art or a science (Barker et al.: Research Methods in Clinical and Counselling Psychology, Chichester, John Wiley?&?Sons, 1994). The “science” camp argues for scientific rigour in methodology, whilst the “art” camp maintains that evaluation should be tailored to the specific circumstances under evaluation. The compromise proposed by Barker, Pistrang,?&?Elliot (1994 Barker, C, Pistrang, N and Elliot, R. 1994. Research methods in clinical and counselling psychology, Chichester: John Wiley?&?Sons.  [Google Scholar]) suggests that evaluation should be as systematic as possible within the practical and organizational constraints inherent in service settings. The aim of this paper is to present a review of the literature on evaluation and workplace counselling. The paper initially reviews the literature in the counselling/psychotherapy field, and then explores studies on employee assistance programmes. The themes that are explored are the relationship between research and practices; the interactions with stakeholders in the field; the use of control groups and the economic side of counselling.     

Far from “Anything Goes”: Ethics as Communally Constructed

Constructivist and constructionist stances have long been critiqued for inviting “anything goes,” otherwise referred to as “rampant relativism.” As Raskin and Debany (this issue Raskin, J. D., &; Debany, A. E. (this issue). The inescapability of ethics and the impossibility of “anything goes”: A constructivist model of ethical meaning making. Journal of Constructivist Psychology. (Reprinted from Ethics in action: Dialogue between knowledge and practice, pp. 13–32, by S. Cipolletta &; E. Gius (Eds.), 2012, Milan, Italy: LED) [Google Scholar]) argue, there could be nothing further from the case. In my response to their article, I take up three issues: (a) the distinction between constructivism and social construction, (b) the critique of rampant relativism, and (c) the case for an ethic of relational responsibility that emerges within a constructionist philosophical stance.     

Thinking Levels of Questions in Christian Reading Textbooks

If Christian schools desire students to achieve higher-level thinking, then the textbooks that teachers use should reflect such thinking. Using Risner's (1987 Risner, G. P. (1987). Cognitive levels of questioning demonstrated by test items that accompany selected fifth-grade science textbooks (Doctoral dissertation). Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN. [Google Scholar]) methodology, raters classified questions from two Christian publishers’ fifth grade reading textbooks based on the revised Bloom's taxonomy (Anderson et al., 2001 Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, K. A., Mayer, R. E., Pintrick, P. R., … Wittrock, M. C. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. New York, NY: Addison Wesley Longman. [Google Scholar]). The questions in the A Beka Book textbook contained 57.6% lower-level and 42.4% higher-level thinking; the questions in the Bob Jones University Press textbook contained 45.8% lower-level and 54.2% higher-level thinking. Analysis revealed a statistically significant difference between the percentages of thinking in the two publishers (p < .05).     

Growin' Grass: Paradise by the Sodium Light

This qualitative study describes members of a little-known and little-researched subculture: small-time marijuana cultivators in the United States. Couched within a symbolic interaction theoretical framework, extensive ethnographic interviews were conducted with eighteen marijuana growers who cultivate cannabis plants in their homes for small sales and personal use. This study creates a typology of growers based on motivation for growing and techniques of cultivation. The authors also illustrate how marijuana growers in this study used various techniques outlined by Sykes and Matza (1957 Sykes , Gresham M. and David Matza . 1957 . “Techniques of Neutralization: A Theory of Delinquency.” American Sociological Review 22 : 664 – 670 .[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) to neutralize their involvement in a deviant and illegal activity.     

Female Patrons of Porn

Although the proportion of women who patronize sexually oriented book-video-novelty stores appears to be growing, little is known about the phenomenon generally or about male–female differences. In the only studies of “female patrons of porn,” both Hefley (2007 Hefley , Kristen . 2007 . “Stigma Management of Male and Female Customers in to Non-Urban Adult Novelty Store.” Deviant Behavior 28 : 79 – 109 .[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and Berkowitz (2006 Berkowitz , Dana . 2006 . “Consuming Eroticism: Gender Performances and Presentations in Pornographic Establishments.” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 35 : 583 – 606 . [Google Scholar]) report that half of the customers that they observed entering two stores were women. Compared to men, women were less likely to enter alone. To further investigate this phenomenon, we observed customers entering 33 stores for 162 hours over a two-year period. Whereas the observations of Hefley (2007 Hefley , Kristen . 2007 . “Stigma Management of Male and Female Customers in to Non-Urban Adult Novelty Store.” Deviant Behavior 28 : 79 – 109 .[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and Berkowitz (2006 Berkowitz , Dana . 2006 . “Consuming Eroticism: Gender Performances and Presentations in Pornographic Establishments.” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 35 : 583 – 606 . [Google Scholar]) were limited to a few of the busiest hours, our observations span all seven weekdays and all hours. Seventeen percent of the patrons who entered the stores were women. This proportion varied over time and across the 33 stores. Women prefer to shop on weekend evenings in stores that provide visible security.