Egalitarian Attitudes Towards the Division of Household Labor Among Adolescents in Iceland

Iceland ranks among the most egalitarian nations in the world according to various quantitative indicators. Gender inequalities nevertheless persist, and egalitarian attitudes among youth have declined in recent years. A national survey among 2,031 students aged 15–16 in 2006 showed that girls and adolescents reporting same-sex attraction hold more egalitarian attitudes towards the division of household labor. A family background of distant immigration, traditional families, and economic affluence were associated with less egalitarian attitudes, as were hours of internet use. Both essentialist and neo-liberal gender ideologies tended to legitimize traditional attitudes. An essentialist gender ideology was associated with more traditional attitudes among girls while a neo-liberal gender ideology was more strongly associated with traditional attitudes among boys.     

Parental Division of Household Labour and Sibling Relationship Quality: Family Relationship Mediators

Research examining antecedents to sibling relationship quality have explored factors such as parenting and temperament (Brody, 1998); however, there has been no previous research on the topic of the current study. The present study used a cross‐informant approach to examine parent–child and marital relationships as potential mediators of links between parents' gendered attitudes and behaviours and sibling relationship quality. One hundred and twenty‐four families with older (M = 7.4 years) and younger (M = 5.2 years) siblings were assessed. Parents reported on division of household labour, gender‐role attitudes and marital satisfaction. Each child reported on sibling relationship quality and parental warmth and hostility. Results revealed a link between more egalitarian division of household labour and more positive sibling relationship quality. Furthermore, this association was not mediated by the marital nor parent–child relationship. We conclude that families with a more egalitarian division of household labour may model positive interactions for siblings. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Changing the Division of Household Labor: A Negotiated Process Between Partners

This short-term longitudinal study expands on previous theoretical approaches, as we examined how women’s assertiveness and the strategies they use to elicit more household labor from husbands help to explain the division of labor and how it changes. Participants included 81 married women with 3- and 4-year-old children who completed two telephone interviews, approximately 2 months apart. Results based on quantitative and qualitative analyses show that (a) relative resource, structural, and gender ideology variables predicted the division of housework, but not childcare; (b) assertive women were closer to their ideal division of childcare than nonassertive women; (c) women who made a larger proportion of family income were less assertive about household labor than other women, but when they were assertive, they had a more equal division of childcare; (d) women who earned the majority of their household’s income showed the least change; and (e) the nature of women’s attempts to elicit change may be critical to their success.     

The Relationship Between Social Support and Family Relationships Among Low-Income Couples Attending Relationship Education

Results are mixed for relationship education (RE) interventions with low-income couples. For couples who experienced positive changes, it is not clear what aspects of program models contributed to change. Many low-income couples attend government-funded RE with limited access to social and community resources. Program models often provide related resources complimentary to RE skill-building. We examined the relationship between income, social support, and family functioning for low-income, ethnically diverse couples (N = 856) who attended RE, as well as the mediating effects of social support on family functioning outcomes. Analyses included three separate dyadic models that examined associations among constructs at baseline and immediately following the RE intervention. Results demonstrated relationships between participants’ reported social support and family functioning such that (a) social support was associated with baseline family functioning for both men and women; (b) men’s baseline social support was influenced by women’s baseline family functioning; and (c) men’s and women’s social support change score had a positive influence on their own family functioning change score. However, social support was not a significant mediator of change in family functioning. Implications for RE practice and research are also discussed.     

More on the Gendered Division of Household Labor: A Response to Commentators

This article is a response to the commentaries made regarding our original article (Lachance-Grzela and Bouchard 2010), which reviewed the state of research on the division of household labor and summarized the main theoretical perspectives used to explain why women continue to complete the larger share of household tasks. In the following pages, we underline how the commentators were helpful in identifying some limitations of the current research on the allocation of household labor and in suggesting relevant paths for future studies. We discuss points on which the commentators agree, such as the need to achieve a better understanding of all forms of inequalities, and points on which they disagree, such as the way researchers should proceed when studying the impact of national context. We also reply to each individual commentary. In response to Coltrane (2010), we discuss the causal loops that exist between gender inequalities in the private and public spheres. We agree with Davis (2010) who proposed that studying the question from other angles could help understand why household labor continues to be divided along gendered lines. We add to Claffey and Manning’s discussion (2010) of the paradox which stems from the fact that couples often perceive an objectively unequal division of household labor as fair to both partners. In conclusion, we take the opportunity to address additional issues related to the division of household labor. For instance, from a clinical psychology standpoint, we discuss how couples who strive to achieve a more egalitarian division of household labor do so.     

Division of Household Labor and Distress: The Role of Perceived Fairness for Employed Mothers

This study used a sample of 121 employed, married (or cohabitating) mothers with a high socioeconomic status (SES) primarily from the Midwest United States to examine the relationship between division of household labor, perceived fairness, and distress. Due to inconsistent findings in prior literature, perceived fairness was examined as both a mediator and moderator between division of household labor and distress. Analyses indicated that perceived fairness played a mediating (but not moderating) role, suggesting that an individual’s perceptions of fairness are one mechanism by which division of household labor influences marital and personal distress in married individuals. Post hoc analyses also indicated that increased marital distress may explain the link between perceived unfairness and personal distress. Although results must be interpreted with caution due to the selectivity of the sample, the present study provides additional support for the importance of perceived fairness in the link between division of household labor and distress.     

Marital Conflict Among Parents: Implications for Family Therapy with Adolescent Conduct Disorder

Conduct disorder is associated with several causative and maintaining factors, with family functioning being an important one. This is especially true in the Indian context, where a lot of the problem behaviors manifested by adolescents with conduct disorders are in the family context. Marital relationship of the parents is a key aspect of family functioning, affecting a number of other dimensions of family functioning, including adolescent adjustment. The paper highlights the role of parents’ marital conflict in the emergence and maintenance of adolescent conduct problems. The importance of family therapy in managing adolescent conduct disorder is discussed through case examples from India. Shalini Anant, MPhil, PhD Scholar, Department of Clinical Psychology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences (NIMHANS), Bangalore 560029, India. Ahalya Raguram, PhD, Additional Professor, Department of Clinical Psychology, NIMHANS, Bangalore 560029, India. Address correspondence to Shalini Anant (shalinianant@gmail.com).     

The Division of Household Labor in Spanish Dual Earner Couples: Testing Three Theories

Although the participation of men in household activities has increased, this has not prompted an equitable division of household activities among men and women, since Spanish women continue to perform a greater share of these activities than Spanish men. This article explores the explanatory potential of three theoretical approaches (traditional gender division, role-strain and the resource-bargaining approach) to account for the emergence of different patterns in the division of unpaid work among Spanish dual earner couples. Using a representative sample of 2,877 Spanish workers and through logit ordered models, our study reveals that the three models contribute to the explanation of the different patterns of household labor and, therefore, may be regarded as complementary.     

Gender Theory and Household Labor

This commentary evaluates and extends Lachance-Grzela and Bouchard’s (2010) review of household labor studies published between 2000 and 2009. Article sampling choices and coverage issues are reviewed and critiqued, followed by a discussion of gender theories and the relationship of divisions of household labor to systems of gender stratification. The author applauds the recent turn toward conceptualizing and measuring national political and policy contexts in household labor studies and calls for more use of meso-level variables and reliance on multi-dimensional theories of gender inequality in analyzing divisions of paid and unpaid labor.     

Maternal-Related Predictors of Self-Regulation Among Low-Income Youth

The association between self-regulation and various adaptive outcomes has become a topic of growing interest to researchers. Yet, there is not much research on predictors of self-regulation in children. Using a cross-sectional design and an array of psychometrically sound scales and measures from multiple informants, this study examined whether maternal characteristics, namely maternal mental health, substance abuse, parenting practices, and child monitoring predicted self-regulation in children. Participants included a culturally diverse group of 155 youths (ages 8–17) and their mothers, all of whom were part of a larger investigation of low-income families in a mid-sized Northeastern city in the United States. Results showed that maternal substance abuse, parenting practices and parental monitoring independently predicted children’s self-regulation, accounting for 23% of the variance. Additional analyses indicated that parenting practices may partly mediate the effect of maternal mental health on children’s self-regulation. Implications for intervention and practice, especially those aimed to mitigate the detrimental effects of maternal mental health problems on children’s self-regulation, are discussed. Further research, both longitudinal and experimental, is warranted in order to extend this line of investigation.     

Gender,Dependency and Guilt in Intimate Relationship Conflict Among Spanish Couples

Conflict is inherent to all types of interpersonal relationships. The interdependence that characterizes romantic relationships is related to the way that men and women perceive intimate partner conflict. The emotion of guilt also plays an important role in the perception of conflict. In the present research we study how, in a conflictive situation, dependency in the relationship is related to guilt in men and women. A total of 116 young Spaniards (half men and half women) were exposed to a plausible conflict situation with their partners. Fifty-eight were undergraduate Psychology students who came to the laboratory with their partners (also mainly college students). The perceived seriousness of the conflict was manipulated, and the study explored how this perception affected the emotion of guilt. We also analyzed the effect of dependency on the intensity of experienced guilt. Results showed that women with high dependency felt guiltier than women with low dependency in high-conflict situations.     

Division of Labor Among Lesbian and Heterosexual Parenting Couples: Correlates of Specialized Versus Shared Patterns

One of the central tasks that couples face in coparenting is the division of labor. In this study, we explored division of family labor among lesbian and heterosexual couples who were parenting 4 to 6 year-old children. Sixty-six families, half headed by lesbian couples and half headed by heterosexual couples, participated in the study. Measures of parental attitudes, resources, demographics, and division of labor were collected. As expected, lesbian couples were more likely to divide paid and unpaid labor evenly, whereas heterosexual couples were more likely to show specialized patterns, with husbands investing more time in paid employment and wives devoting more time to unpaid family work. Structural variables (e.g., husband's hours in paid employment) were the best predictors of division of labor among heterosexual couples. Among lesbian couples, however, ideological variables (e.g., ideas about ideal divisions of labor) were the better predictors. Discrepancies in occupational prestige were greater among heterosexual than among lesbian couples. Discussion centers on the ways in which gender and sexual orientation may relate to couples' decisions about division of labor.     

Cross-National Comparison of Attitudes Toward Fathers' and Mothers' Participation in Household Tasks and Childcare

The purpose of this study was to explore attitudes toward the division of fathers' and mothers' participation in childcare/household tasks through a multilevel modeling approach. Data from the Euro-barometer surveys, including over 10,000 respondents from 13 European countries, were used. Respondents' attitudes were related to several individual-and macro-level factors. At the individual level (based on a separate regression equation for each country), it was found that respondents were most likely to hold egalitarian attitudes toward household work and childcare when they were younger, female, and politically liberal. At the macro level, countries' United Nations ratings on women's empowerment, Gross National Product, and cultural individualism were related to egalitarian attitudes. Study implications, strengths and weaknesses, and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

New Manager Socialization and Conflict Management in China: Effects of Relationship and Open Conflict Values1

How newcomers interact with experienced employees has been thought to affect their socialization and performance. This study complements previous newcomer research by examining the role of organizational values on this interaction. Middle managers newly recruited into a large telecom company in China were randomly assigned to discuss a conflict with an existing employee where the organization either valued relationships or not, and either valued open discussion of diverse ideas or not. As expected, valuing relationship and open discussion, compared to not valuing relationship and avoiding discussion, facilitated new managers' socialization and helped them develop cooperative goals and quality leader–member exchange. Results were interpreted that by embracing values of relationships and open discussion, organizations can more effectively socialize newcomers.     

The Impact of Childcare and Parent-Child Interactions on School Readiness and Social Skills Development for Low-Income African American Children

Low-income and African American children are at increased risk for school readiness deficits in terms of both cognitive and social development. This study examined the roles of childcare involvement and parent-child interaction quality on the development of school readiness and social skills among a low-income, minority sample of kindergarten children. Findings provide mixed evidence on the role of childcare exposure, with early entry into childcare predicting higher levels of social skills ratings and increased time per week in such settings predicting lower levels of social skills development. Childcare exposure had positive, although trend-level, relationships with other readiness-related outcomes after accounting for demographic characteristics of children and their families. Parent-child interactions characterized as structured and responsive to the child's needs and emotions were positively related to school readiness, social skills, and receptive communication skills development after accounting for demographic characteristics and childcare exposure. Implications for preventive intervention program development and the role of school psychologists in the areas of consultation and intervention are discussed.     

Work Family Conflict Among Parents of Atypically Developing Children: Exploring the Impact of Worker,Work, and Child Factors

The purpose of this research was to examine the impact of worker characteristics (e.g., time spent caring for others), workplace support, and child characteristics on work family conflict among parents of atypically developing children. Participants (N = 51) were employed parents of atypically developing children who completed measures of work family conflict, workplace supports (i.e., supervisory support and organizationally supportive cultures), the availability and use of family supportive workplace programs, child characteristics, and worker characteristics. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated that worker and child characteristics significantly predicted work family conflict, work in family interference, and family in work interference. In addition, workplace supports significantly predicted work family conflict and family in work interference. Implications of the results for managing the work family life interface are discussed.     

The Division of Labor Among Egalitarian and Traditional Women: Differences in Discontent, Social Comparison, and False Consensus

We compared 118 egalitarian women (subscribers to the Dutch feminist magazine Opzij ) with 118 traditional women (subscribers to the widely read Dutch women's magazine Margriet ). On average, egalitarian women had a more equal division of household labor at home than did traditional women but experienced more discontent about the division of labor in their relationship. Egalitarian women with an unequal division of labor experienced more discontent than did traditional women with an unequal division of labor. Relative to traditional women, egalitarian women more often compared their own contribution to housework with their partner's contribution (relational comparison) and with other women's division of labor (referential comparison). Compared to traditional women, egalitarian women gave higher prevalence estimates of both the percentage of Dutch women doing virtually all housework and the percentage of women unhappy with the division of labor.     

Impact of Fees Among Low-Income Clients in a Training Clinic

Many therapists believe clients must pay a fee in order for therapy to be effective. This study conducted a review of 1,125 client records in a southeastern university’s marriage and family therapy training clinic to determine how paying fees impacted therapy attendance and outcomes. The results indicated that the amount of fee paid did not predict therapy attendance or outcomes. These findings, consistent with previous research, suggest that fee payment has limited impact on achievement of therapeutic gains.     

Parental Perceptions of Child Development Among Low-Income Mexican American Families

Parents' perceptions of child development are influenced by complex interactions among cultural, social, and economic factors. Insights into how parents from culturally diverse societies perceive the development of their children might explain why different cultural groups foster or value the development of different skills in their children. In this study, we explored the perceptions of child development among low income Mexican American parents. A series of ethnographic interviews were conducted with eight Mexican American families who had preschool children. Qualitative data analyses yielded three main themes that were important to these parents: family attitudes and values, changes, and adaptations. For these parents, the development of social attributes in children, that will enable them to function within their own cultural group, was as important as the development of cognitive or motor skills. Service providers, such as school and mental health personnel, should take into account cultural differences in parents' perceptions of the importance of various developmental milestones for their children when suggesting interventions typically used by parents in the dominant culture.