The cognitive failures questionnaire revisited: dimensions and correlates

The authors reexamined the factor structure of the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (D. E. Broadbent, P. F. Cooper, P. Fitzgerald, & K. R. Parkes, 1982) and its correlates. The Cognitive Failures Questionnaire was designed to assess a person's likelihood of committing an error in the completion of an everyday task. A principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation yielded 4 internally consistent, interpretable factors. These factors were labeled Memory, Distractibility, Blunders, and (memory for) Names. This study lends partial support for the factor analytic solution proposed by L. K. Pollina, A. L. Greene, R. H. Tunick, and J. M. Puckett (1992). In addition, it extends previous findings by providing initial evidence for the construct validity of the factors established by correlating factor scores with measures of other related constructs (i.e., boredom proneness, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, Type A behavior pattern).     

Effects of age and ability on self-reported memory functioning and knowledge of memory aging

The authors examined the effects of age and ability (as measured by education and verbal ability) on self-reported memory functioning in adulthood. In Study 1, the age and ability groups responded similarly to the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (D. E. Broadbent, P. F. Cooper, P. Fitzgerald, & K. R. Parkes, 1982), but differences emerged when the authors examined specific items tapping prospective and retrospective memory. In Study 2, the authors found age and ability differences in self-reported memory functioning, as measured by the Memory Functioning Questionnaire (M. J. Gilewski, E. M. Zelinski, & K. W. Schaie, 1990) and in knowledge of memory aging, as measured by the Knowledge of Memory Aging Questionnaire (K. E. Cherry, R. L. West, C. M. Reese, M. P. Santa Maria, & M. Yassuda, 2000). In both studies, differences in self-reported functioning were not related to objective memory performance. In the second study, knowledge was positively related to performance. Implications for conceptions of metamemory and memory aging are considered.     

Understanding cognitive failures: what's dissociation got to do with it?

Intuitively, cognitive failures and dissociation seem to encompass overlapping mental phenomena. This study used a large sample to examine the nature of the relationship between these constructs. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analyses were performed on the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ). The single factor resulting from the EFA of the CFQ correlated significantly with all factors from the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES). A conjoint item-level factor analysis using all items from both measures was performed, and two factors resulted. The first included all items from the CFQ and appeared to describe an absorption-like phenomenon. The second factor's highest positively loading items assessed more pathological forms of dissociation. Based on our results, we conclude that the CFQ and DES are assessing similar cognitive processes and that cognitive failures, as measured by the CFQ, overlap with nonpathological dissociation.     

Multiple factors of cognitive failure and their relationships with stress vulnerability

Use of the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ) in clinical research assumes that the questionnaire measures a single factor. A factor analysis of the CFQ was performed, on a sample of 475 students, using accurate procedures for determining the number of factors. These procedures gave mutually inconsistent results: at least two alternative factor structures can be extracted from the CFQ. An interpretable seven factor solution was found, but the CFQ probably has insufficient items to measure more than two strongly defined factors. The capacity of CFQ multiple factors to predict measures related to stress vulnerability was tested in a further study (N=57). Correlations between CFQ total score and neuroticism and use of coping strategies appeared to depend mainly on a single CFQ multiple factor, related to failures of concentration. Some of the other CFQ factors predicted other criteria. Further research on multiple factors of cognitive failure might improve the validity of the CFQ as a predictor of stress vulnerability and of cognitive performance.     

Evaluating fit of the Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire (PRMQ) in a Nigerian adult population

This study aimed to evaluate the latent structure of the Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire (PRMQ) and to estimate the reliability and validity of scores from the measure in a Nigerian adult population (N = 758; age range = 18 - 63 years; females = 52.24%). Respondents also completed the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ). The data were analysed utilising confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The results suggest the PRMQ to have a tripartite structure characterised by the following features: general memory, plus eight prospective and eight retrospective memory items. Scores from the PRMQ had evidence of convergent validity with the CFQ. The reliability of scores from the PRMQ was of acceptable magnitude for the research purposes investigated in the study.     

The factor structure of the Revised Illness Perception Questionnaire (IPQ-R) in end-stage renal disease patients

The purpose of this study was to examine the factor structure of the Revised Illness Perceptions Questionnaire (IPQ-R) in a sample of 374 end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients. A confirmatory factor analysis of the IPQ-R, including the illness identity subscale, demonstrated adequate model fit for the factor structure as originally defined by (Moss-Morris, R., Weinman, J., Petrie, K. J., Horne, R., Cameron, L. D., & Buick, D. (2002). The revised Illness Perception Questionnaire (IPQ-R). Psychology & Health, 17 (1), 1-16.) Modifying the a-priori IPQ-R factor structure by removing two items with low factor loadings and specifying a path between personal control and item 23 had marginally better fit. A separate exploratory factor analysis of the causal items indicated three factors relating to Biological, Psychological and Behavioural causes. These findings provide evidence towards the validity and reliability of the IPQ-R as a suitable measure of illness perceptions in the context of ESRD.     

Psychometric evaluation of the Beck Depression Inventory-II with primary care medical patients.

This study evaluated the psychometric characteristics of the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II; A. T. Beck, R. A. Steer, & G. K. Brown, 1996) in a primary care medical setting. A principal-components analysis with Promax rotation indicated the presence of 2 correlated factors, Somatic-Affective and Cognitive, which explained 53.5% of the variance. A hierarchical, second-order analysis indicated that all items tap into a second-order construct of depression. Evidence for convergent validity was provided by predicted relationships with subscales from the Short-Form General Health Survey (SF-20; A. L. Stewart, R. D. Hayes, & J. E. Ware, 1988). A receiver operating characteristic analysis demonstrated criterion-related validity: BDI-II scores predicted a diagnosis of major depressive disorder (MDD), as determined by the Primary Care Evaluation of Mental Disorders (PRIME-MD) Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ). This study demonstrated that the BDI-II yields reliable, internally consistent, and valid scores in a primary care medical setting, suggesting that use of the BDI-II in this setting may improve detection and treatment of depression in these medical patients.     

Measuring slips and lapses when they occur – Ambulatory assessment in application to cognitive failures

Cognitive failures are lapses in attention, cognition, and actions that everybody experiences in everyday life. Self-reports are mainly used for assessment but those instruments are memory-biased and more related to personality aspects than to actual behavior. Ambulatory assessment is already used for capturing emotions or addictive behavior, but not yet for cognitive failures. The newly developed Questionnaire for Cognitive Failures in Everyday Life (KFA) was applied via mobile phones (electronic KFA) wherein an acoustic signal asked participants (N = 91, 60–76 years) 4 times daily to answer 13 questions for 1 week. The new instrument showed satisfying reliability and was compared with a self-report method (Cognitive Failures Questionnaire; Broadbent, Cooper, Fitzgerald, and Parkes, 1982) in terms of correlations with cognitive abilities (working memory capacity, short-term memory, switching ability, and reasoning), personality traits, and demographical aspects. Although further validation is needed, first results are promising and eKFA enriches cognitive failures research.     

Can Accidents and Industrial Mishaps Be Predicted? Further Investigation into the Relationship Between Cognitive Failure and Reports of Accidents

The ability of the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ) to predict accidents and job performance ratings was investigated. A participant pool of 240 electrical workers anonymously completed the CFQ and an information sheet. Results indicated that CFQ scores and the Blunder factor could predict automobile accidents and work accidents, while the Blunders and Distractibility subscales could predict overall performance ratings. Additionally, to increase the generalizability of the study both self-reports and objective reports of safety behavior were collected. Results demonstrated that both types of reports overlapped substantially. Implications and limitations of the present study are discussed, as well as future research.     

Commentary: Expanding the Research Agenda on Interventions for Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders

The articles in this series describe complementary programs of research and innovative approaches to extend evidence-based interventions for youth with anxiety in several important directions: to extend the target age range [Pincus, D. B., Santucci, L. C., Ehrenreich, J. T., & Eyberg, S. M. (2008-this issue). Treating separation anxiety disorder in young children: Exploring the additive impact of exposure on PCIT treatment outcome. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 15]; to extend interventions to more broadly defined target populations, including youth with co-occurring psychiatric symptoms [Weersing, V. R., Gonzalez, A., Campo, J. V., & Lucas, A. N. (2008-this issue). Brief CBT for pediatric anxiety and depression: Piloting an integrated treatment approach. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 15] and somatic symptoms [Reigada, L. C., Fisher, P. H., Cutler, C., & Masia Warner, C. (2008-this issue). An innovative treatment approach for children with anxiety disorders and medically unexplained somatic complaints. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 15]; to extend access in specific community-practice settings [Ginsburg, G. S., Becker, K., Kingery, J., & Nichols, T. (2008-this issue). Transporting CBT for childhood anxiety disorders into inner city school-based mental health clinics. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 15; Reigada, L. C., Fisher, P. H., Cutler, C., & Masia Warner, C. (2008-this issue). An innovative treatment approach for children with anxiety disorders and medically unexplained somatic complaints. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 15; Weersing, V. R., Gonzalez, A., Campo, J. V., & Lucas, A. N. (2008-this issue). Brief CBT for pediatric anxiety and depression: Piloting an integrated treatment approach. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 15]; and to extend access to these evidence-based approaches, in general [Khanna, M. S., & Kendall, P. C. (2008-this issue). Computer assisted CBT for child anxiety: The Coping Cat CD. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 15]. This commentary addresses how, collectively, these programs of research illustrate promising approaches to intervention adaptation and testing. The discussion also explores potential directions that might facilitate future research, including potential directions for broadening the interventions research agenda to help ensure that high-quality, evidence-based interventions are ultimately available to children and adolescents with anxiety.     

Psychological reactance: factor structure and internal consistency of the Questionnaire for the Measurement of Psychological Reactance.

Psychological reactance, the theory that people resist attempts to constrain either their thoughts or their behaviors (J. W. Brehm, 1966), has been an influential concept in social psychology. In an attempt to measure reactance, J. Merz (1983) developed the Questionnaire for the Measurement of Psychological Reactance (QMPR). Subsequent researchers (S.-M. Hong & R. Ostini, 1989; R. K. Tucker & P. Y. Byers, 1987) have debated both the exact factor structure and the psychometric stability of the QMPR. In the present study, 898 undergraduates completed the QMPR. Factor analysis suggested that psychological reactance is multidimensional. The authors found 3 factors underlying the QMPR, but the QMPR provided unreliable estimates for each of those factors. According to the results, the QMPR as currently written is psychometrically unsatisfactory.     

Psychological Reactance: Factor Structure and Internal Consistency of the Questionnaire for the Measurement of Psychological Reactance

Abstract

Psychological reactance, the theory that people resist attempts to constrain either their thoughts or their behaviors (J. W. Brehm, 1966), has been an influential concept in social psychology. In an attempt to measure reactance, J. Merz (1983) developed the Questionnaire for the Measurement of Psychological Reactance (QMPR). Subsequent researchers (S.-M. Hong & R. Ostini, 1989; R. K. Tucker & P. Y. Byers, 1987) have debated both the exact factor structure and the psychometric stability of the QMPR. In the present study, 898 undergraduates completed the QMPR. Factor analysis suggested that psychological reactance is multidimensional. The authors found 3 factors underlying the QMPR, but the QMPR provided unreliable estimates for each of those factors. According to the results, the QMPR as currently written is psychometrically unsatisfactory.     

Multigroup Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Cognitive Dysfunction Questionnaire: Instrument refinement and measurement invariance across age and sex

Vestergren, P., Rönnlund, M., Nyberg, L. & Nilsson, L.‐G. (2012). Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis of the Cognitive Dysfunction Questionnaire: Instrument refinement and measurement invariance across age and sex. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 53, 390–400. The study adopted Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to investigate the factorial structure and reduce the number of items of the Cognitive Dysfunction Questionnaire (CDQ). The analyses were based on data for a total of 1,115 participants from population based samples (mean age: 63.0 ± 14.5 years, range: 25–95) randomly split into a refinement (N = 569) and a cross‐validation (N = 546) sample. Equivalence of the measurement and structural portions of the refined model was demonstrated across the refinement and cross‐validation samples. Among competing models the best fitting and parsimonious model had a hierarchical factor structure with five first‐order and one second‐order general factor. For the final version of the CDQ, 20 items within five domains were selected (Procedural actions, Semantic word knowledge, Face recognition, Temporal orientation, and Spatial navigation). Internal consistency reliabilities were adequate for the total scale and for the subscales. Multigroup CFAs indicated measurement invariance across age and sex up to the scalar level. Finally, higher levels of cognitive dysfunction as reflected by CDQ scores were predicted by advancing age, fewer years of education, and with deficits in general cognitive functioning as reflected by scores on the Mini‐Mental State Examination. In conclusion, the CDQ appears to be psychometrically sound and shows the expected relationships with variables known to be associated with cognitive dysfunction and dementia. Future studies should apply it among clinical groups to further test its usefulness.     

Incremental variance in indecisiveness due to cognitive failure compared to fluid intelligence and personality traits

This study investigated the role of fluid intelligence, personality traits and perceived cognitive failure in relation to indecisiveness. The Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM), the Big Five Questionnaire (BFQ) and the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ) were administered to 429 Italian high school students. The study revealed that perceived cognitive failure added a significant percentage of incremental variance in indecisiveness compared to variances due to fluid intelligence and personality traits thereby offering new research and intervention possibilities.     

Parenting style as a mediator between children's negative emotionality and problematic behavior in early childhood

Negative emotionality is considered to be the core of the difficult temperament concept (J. E. Bates, 1989; R. L. Shiner, 1998). In this correlational study, the authors examined whether the relations between children's negative emotionality and problematic behavior (internalizing and externalizing) were partially mediated by parenting style (authoritative and authoritarian) in a community sample of 196 3-year-old children and their mothers. The authors assessed maternal perception of child negative emotionality using the Children's Behavior Questionnaire (M. K. Rothbart, S. A. Ahadi, K. L. Hershey, & P. Fisher, 2001) and assessed problematic child behavior by means of maternal report using the Child Behavior Checklist (T. M. Achenbach, 1992). The results showed that the relations between child negative emotionality and internalizing and externalizing behaviors were partially mediated by mothers' authoritative parenting style. Moreover, when the authors used confirmatory factor analysis to decontaminate possible overlap in item content between measures assessing temperament and problematic behavior, the association between negative emotionality and internalizing behavior was fully mediated by authoritative parenting.     

Comparison of factor structure models for the Beck Depression Inventory--II

Factor analyses of the Beck Depression Inventory--II (A. T. Beck, R. A. Steer, & G. K. Brown, 1996) have frequently produced 2 different 2-factor oblique structures. The author used confirmatory factor analyses to compare these structures with a general-factor model with 2 orthogonal group factors. The general-factor model fit as well as or better than the 2-factor models when applied to item data from previous studies (3 clinical and 2 college samples). Communalities associated with the General Depression factor ranged from 71% to 82%. Cognitive and Somatic group factors were indicative of intropunitiveness and fatigue. It was concluded that the general-factor model gives an acceptable empirical explanation of item covariance structure and offers a conceptual interpretation that is well suited to clinical practice and research.     

Vocabularies

Negative emotionality is considered to be the core of the difficult temperament concept (J. E. Bates, 1989; R. L. Shiner, 1998). In this correlational study, the authors examined whether the relations between children's negative emotionality and problematic behavior (internalizing and externalizing) were partially mediated by parenting style (authoritative and authoritarian) in a community sample of 196 3-year-old children and their mothers. The authors assessed maternal perception of child negative emotionality using the Children's Behavior Questionnaire (M. K. Rothbart, S. A. Ahadi, K. L. Hershey, &; P. Fisher, 2001) and assessed problematic child behavior by means of maternal report using the Child Behavior Checklist (T. M. Achenbach, 1992). The results showed that the relations between child negative emotionality and internalizing and externalizing behaviors were partially mediated by mothers' authoritative parenting style. Moreover, when the authors used confirmatory factor analysis to decontaminate possible overlap in item content between measures assessing temperament and problematic behavior, the association between negative emotionality and internalizing behavior was fully mediated by authoritative parenting.     

The Relationship between Temperamental Negative Affect,Effortful Control,and Sensory Regulation: A New Look

Temperamental negative affectivity (NA) and effortful control (EC) have long been of interest to psychologists, but sensory regulation (SR) has received less attention. Using confirmatory factor analysis, the present study reexamined the Rothbart model of EC and NA using the Children's Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ; M.K. Rothbart, S.A. Ahadi, K.L. Hershy, & P. Fisher, 2001), along with alternative models of EC, NA, and SR using the CBQ and Short Sensory Profile. The results failed to replicate the Rothbart model of EC and NA, which includes SR within the EC and NA factors. A good fit was found for a three‐factor model (EC, NA, and SR) that was replicated in a holdout sample. A three‐factor model also showed a good fit when EC, NA, and SR items similar to symptoms of behavior problems were eliminated.     

Retrieval‐induced forgetting is inversely relatedto everyday cognitive failures

It has recently been suggested ( Anderson, 2003 ) that forgetting is an adaptive process arising from successful inhibition of unwanted items, rather than arising from a failure of the memory system. This inhibition process is thought to make use of retrieval‐induced forgetting (RIF). In the present study, individual susceptibility to RIF was measured in a group of 40 normal participants, whose RIF scores were then compared with their scores on the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ). A significant inverse correlation was found between RIF and CFQ scores, indicating that individuals who show a strong RIF effect tend to suffer a lower rate of cognitive failures and forgetfulness in everyday life. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that RIF might play a role in facilitating memory function by assisting selective retrieval.     

A cross-cultural study of personality: Swedish and English children

Five hundred and thirty-one Swedish boys and 559 Swedish girls completed the Junior Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (J.EPQ) translated into Swedish by the authors (A.-L.v.K. and L.v.K.). Factor comparisons indicated virtually identical factors of Psychoticism (P) Extraversion (E), Neuroticism (N) and social desirability—Lie (L)—in Sweden as in England. Slight item additions produced scales with adequate reliabilities. Sex differences were in line with most studies, i.e. boys scoring higher than girlson Psychoticism (P) but lower on Neuroticism (N) and Lie (L). Finally, the only significant cross-cultural difference between Swedish and Engish children proved to be on Neuroticism (N) where the Swedish children had much lower scores than the English children.