Assessing coping strategies: a theoretically based approach

We developed a multidimensional coping inventory to assess the different ways in which people respond to stress. Five scales (of four items each) measure conceptually distinct aspects of problem-focused coping (active coping, planning, suppression of competing activities, restraint coping, seeking of instrumental social support); five scales measure aspects of what might be viewed as emotional-focused coping (seeking of emotional social support, positive reinterpretation, acceptance, denial, turning to religion); and three scales measure coping responses that arguably are less useful (focus on and venting of emotions, behavioral disengagement, mental disengagement). Study 1 reports the development of scale items. Study 2 reports correlations between the various coping scales and several theoretically relevant personality measures in an effort to provide preliminary information about the inventory's convergent and discriminant validity. Study 3 uses the inventory to assess coping responses among a group of undergraduates who were attempting to cope with a specific stressful episode. This study also allowed an initial examination of associations between dispositional and situational coping tendencies.     

Cognitive and motivational processes underlying coping flexibility: a dual-process model

Discriminative facility was proposed as a cognitive process and need for closure was proposed as a motivational process underlying coping flexibility. The dual-process model posits that need for closure influences discriminative facility, which in turn modifies coping flexibility and psychological adjustment. In Study 1, results of structural equation modeling provided support for the dual-process model. This model was further examined using experimental methods (Study 2) and a prospective design (Study 3). Consistent with the dual-process model, results from all 3 studies showed that participants who were more motivated to seek alternative coping strategies tended to encode stressful situations in a more differentiated way. These individuals used a greater variety of strategies to fit different situational demands and were better adjusted.     

Understanding the utility of emotional approach coping: evidence from a laboratory stressor and daily life

Background: Dispositional emotional approach coping (EAC) marks an adaptive tendency to process and express emotions. EAC's association with cognitions, affect, and intra- and interindividual characteristics that may account for its utility was examined in response to an acute stressor and in daily life. Design: This study included a laboratory stress task and ecological momentary assessment. Methods: Healthy undergraduate students (n = 124; mean age: 20; women: 56%) completed a laboratory component (baseline survey, speech stress task, pre- and posttask measures) and five subsequent days of surveys via palm pilot (six surveys/day). Results: Controlling for sex, neuroticism, and social support, greater EAC was associated with more positive cognitive appraisals, personal resources, and positive affect and less-negative affect during the lab stressor, and with more perceived control and positive affect in daily life. Significant EAC × sex interactions were found for poststressor affect: men with high EAC reported more positive affect and women with high EAC reported less negative affect. Conclusions: Findings provide support that EAC's utility may be independent of intra- and interindividual characteristics, and that men and women may benefit from EAC in different ways in regards to affect. The proclivity to use EAC may come with a resiliency that protects against stress and promotes general well-being.     

Humor and coping with stress: A test under real-life conditions

The relationship between humor and coping with stress was investigated for trainees in a course for combat NCOs in the Israel Defense Forces. Measures of humor through self-report and peer-ratings were administered to 159 soldiers. Coping with stress was assessed through ratings by commanders and peers, and through final course grades. The findings showed that humor as rated by peers (but not by self-report) was positively related to performance under stress. This was especially true for active humor (self-produced as opposed to reactive humor). No differences were found between individuals characterized by self-directed humor and other-directed humor in performance under stress. The implications in terms of humor theories and further research are discussed.     

Cognitive processes underlying coping flexibility: differentiation and integration

This study investigates how individuals formulate flexible coping strategies across situations by proposing differentiation and integration as two stress-appraisal processes. Results showed that participants who coped more flexibly adopted the dimensions of controllability and impact in differentiating among different stressful situations. They also deployed an integrated strategy: the deployment of more monitoring in situations perceived as controllable but less of this strategy in situations perceived as uncontrollable. Participants who coped less flexibly did not adopt any given dimensions and tended to use more monitoring regardless of situational characteristics. These results suggest that individuals with different extents of coping flexibility differ in the cognitive processes. Individuals who cope more flexibly display a greater extent of differentiation and integration than do those who cope less flexibly. These findings are translated into strategies for stress management workshops.     

Toward a multimethod approach to assessing the effects of social support

Two studies were done to assess the direct and stress-buffering effects of social support on psychological symptoms of college students. Three conceptually distinct measures were used to assess different aspects of social support: receipt of supportive transactions, satisfaction with support received, and social support network characteristics. The results indicated a significant direct and stress-buffering effect for support satisfaction in reducing psychological symptomatology. Two measures of support network size were used: number of people who were both a source of supportive and of upsetting interactions (conflicted support network), and number of people who were only mentioned as a source of support (unconflicted support network). Conflicted network size was positively related to symptomatology and increased the relationship between stress and symptomatology. No direct or interaction effects were obtained for unconflicted network size in predicting symptomatology.     

Assessing mental flexibility with a new word recognition test

This paper presents the development and preliminary evaluation of a new word recognition test (WRT) designed to measure individual differences in mental flexibility, defined as the ability to solve novel problems in unfamiliar settings. Conceptually designed to simulate problem solving in real world performance situations, the test was developed to recruit fluid and reproductive abilities and the interplay between convergent and divergent thinking. It is based on a framework that integrates and extends previous theoretical and methodological approaches to the study of cognitive ability and creative cognition. The WRT was administered with various cognitive ability and criterion measures to an undergraduate student sample (n = 266). Results provide preliminary evidence of construct validity. WRT scores correlated as expected with reference measures of cognitive ability, creative performance, and college performance (GPA). Regression analyses showed the WRT explained an additional 4.5% of variance in college performance over and above traditional cognitive ability measures that take up to five times as long to administer. Results suggest further study is warranted given the potential for its contribution to basic research and applied use.     

Typical coping patterns: A person-centered approach to coping

Applying the person-oriented approach to coping can provide a unique perspective by revealing typical latent patterns. The study examined typical latent patterns shown by task-, emotion- and avoidance-oriented trait-based coping styles. We performed secondary analyses with Latent Profile Analysis on our former data and three independent datasets containing coping measures with the CISS-48 scale (Endler & Parker, 1994). Gender differences were also studied. Two basic profiles seem universal: the first is characterized by a high level of task-oriented coping, and the second profile is with moderately high scores on all three coping styles. The finding indicates that two fundamental latent coping profiles exist, which suggests a within-subject comparison in practice instead of investigating the absolute value of coping styles. Comparing data before and after 2020, COVID-19 does not seem to affect these profiles. The person-centered approach provides a possibility for the integration of coping-related findings.     

The effects of a short-term mindfulness meditation intervention on coping flexibility

Background and objectives: Mindfulness meditation (MM) training promotes health and well-being. One potential mechanistic link between MM and health may be coping flexibility, (e.g., the ability to monitor and modify coping strategies based on situational needs and strategy effectiveness). We hypothesized that MM training would increase coping flexibility and also explored whether gains in coping flexibility continued to increase after training, or whether they were maintained or lost with time.

Methods and design: One hundred thirteen students (71 female, M_age?=?18.97) were randomly assigned to a waitlist control or MM condition. Participants in the MM condition were trained by a certified MM instructor and given guided recordings for one-week of at-home practice. Participants provided reports of coping flexibility over a three-week span.

Results: Results from multilevel modeling indicated that MM increased coping flexibility among those in the MM condition and among those who spent relatively more time meditating. Results further suggested that the gains in coping flexibility that were evident at post-test were not only maintained but increased in the two weeks after the intervention.

Conclusions: This study provides preliminary support for the assertion that MM increases the ability to monitor and modify coping strategies during times of stress.     

Measuring depression in children: a multimethod assessment investigation

The present investigation examined measures for the assessment of depressive symptomatology in children, as well as two related constructs (self-esteem and anxiety). The sample consisted of 166 elementary school children from grades 3 through 6. Two self-report depression measures, the Children's Depression Inventory (Kovacs, 1979) and the Child Depression Scale (Reynolds, in press), as well as anxiety and self-esteem scales, were completed by the children. Parents (mothers and fathers) evaluated their children on the depression and anxiety scales from the Personality Inventory for Children (Wirt, Lachar, Klinedinst, & Seat, 1977), and teachers provided global ratings of depression and academic performance. The results support the reliability and validity of both self-report children depression measures. Data obtained on the parent report measure do not recommend its use at this time for assessing depression in children, while results on teachers' global ratings of depression provide some evidence that teachers may be a good source of information regarding depression in children.The authors gratefully acknowledge the generous assistance provided by Al Holmquist, principal of Mazomanie Elementary School, and James Clark, principal of Oregon Elementary School, and their teachers. This research was funded in part by a Spencer Foundation Grant to the first author, through the School of Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison. The writing of this article was facilitated by a Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation grant (135–1503) to the first author.     

Cognitive coping strategies and blood pressure responses to real-life stress in healthy young men.

Coping style is an important feature in the understanding of the relation between real-life stress and associated blood pressure (BP) responses. In this study, 10 high- and 10 low-"self-focused-coping" (SFC) male college students were tested with ambulatory BP monitoring on two typical schooldays, one of which included an examination. It was found that the high-SFC subjects, defined as those who tend to keep to themselves and/or blame themselves in stressful situations, showed higher BP responses than the low-SFC subjects, but only on the exam day. Further, the high-SFC subjects showed higher BP during the exam but also had BP elevations that were sustained during other activities throughout the same day, including evening rest. These results are discussed in terms of the relation between psychological and physiological responding.     

Protective role of coping flexibility in PTSD and depressive symptoms following trauma

The aim of the study was to examine whether coping flexibility would function as a protective factor for PTSD and depressive symptoms in trauma-exposed adults in Korea. A total of 510 adults with a lifetime history of traumatic events completed the Perceived Ability to Cope with Trauma (PACT), the Korea version of the Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale (PDS-K), and the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). Hierarchical regression indicated that coping flexibility was associated with a reduced level of PTSD or depressive symptoms after controlling for comorbid symptoms, age, and elapsed time since the most distressing traumatic event. The interaction of traumatic events and coping flexibility was significant only on PTSD symptom severity but not on depressive symptom severity. Specifically, individuals with low coping flexibility reported higher levels of PTSD symptoms as the number of traumatic events increased. These findings supported the hypothesis that coping flexibility is a protective factor for PTSD and depression following trauma, and lack of coping flexibility may aggravate the risk for PTSD among people with multiple trauma.     

Distress and coping with hot flushes at work: Implications for counsellors in occupational settings

This study explored whether mid-life women regard hot flushes at work as a substantial stressor. A sample of 29 working women reporting hot flushes for at least 12 months rated the degree to which each of ten work situations influenced flush distress or discomfort. Ratings were compared with qualitative accounts of coping with flushes at work. Results showed that women differed markedly in the work situations that they regarded as most problematic, but flush distress was commonly magnified during formal meetings, in hot enclosed spaces and in the presence of male colleagues. A substantial minority viewed colleagues as conveying negative attitudes towards menopausal problems, which jeopardised general confidence at work as well as creating specific difficulties during frush episodes. Flush distress was higher among those reporting embarrassment and dificulties disclosing menopausal status to others. Respondents made suggestions for ways in which the working environment could be improved to assist women in managing hot flushes. Coping with flushes was largely seen as an individual rather than organisational responsibility. Other stigmatising health problems may present similar subjective problems at work, and this needs further study. Some implications for counsellors working in organisational settings are explored.     

Preschoolers' aggression and parent-child conflict: a multiinformant and multimethod study

This multiinformant and multimethod study (N=47) investigated the link between the parent-child relationship system and the display of physical and relational aggression with peers at school during early childhood. Children (mean age=43.54 months, SD=8.02) were observed (80min/child) during free play, and parents and teachers were asked to complete several standard measures. Intercorrelations between aggression subtypes revealed moderate to high levels of correlation for parents and teachers and no significant association for observations of physical and relational aggression. Interinformant agreement was examined, and teachers and parents were found to significantly agree for both physical and relational aggression, and teachers and observers also significantly agreed for both subtypes of aggression. Results of regression analyses suggest that parent-child conflict was uniquely associated with relational aggression among peers when controlling for physical aggression and gender. Ways in which these findings build on the extant literature are discussed.     

Towards a theory-based assessment of coping: The german adaptation of the strategic approach to coping scale

Although coping has become one of the central constructs in the area of research on life events, emotions, and health, it is yet not clear how to conceptualize coping in the most powerful way. Coping instruments often lack a clear underlying theory or are confounded with the stress process itself. Therefore, a theoretical as well as empirical framework is needed. The study at hand presents cross-sectional data from a German version of a coping scale that is constructed in line with the Strategic Approach to Coping Scale (SACS) developed by Hobfoll et al. The German scale findings support those of the original, US version, but also indicate potential cultural distinction. The findings suggest that the GSACS is theory syntonic and has potential for elaborating coping research.     

Development of the Coping Flexibility Scale: evidence for the coping flexibility hypothesis

Coping flexibility was defined as the ability to discontinue an ineffective coping strategy (i.e., evaluation coping) and produce and implement an alternative coping strategy (i.e., adaptive coping). The Coping Flexibility Scale (CFS) was developed on the basis of this definition. Five studies involving approximately 4,400 Japanese college students and employees were conducted to test the hypothesis that flexible coping produces more adaptive outcomes. Studies 1, 2, and 3 provided evidence of the reliability of the CFS scores as well as of its convergent and discriminant validity for Japanese samples. Study 4 further demonstrated that flexible coping was positively associated with improved psychological health, including reduced depression, anxiety, and distress. In Study 5, coping flexibility as measured by the CFS was associated with reduced future depression, even after controlling for the effects of other coping flexibility measures and popular coping strategies. Overall, these results suggest that a valid approach for assessing coping flexibility has been developed and that flexible coping can contribute to psychological health. The implications of these findings for clinical practice are discussed.     

Verbal contingent stimulation of stuttering in laboratory and home settings

The effect of verbal contingent stimulation for stuttering behaviors was examined during changes of stimulus delivery mode and experimental setting. In Experiment I, contingent stimuli were delivered in the laboratory setting with the experimenter and subject in a face-to-face arrangement versus presentations by the experimenter from a control room via a headset arrangement. In Experiment II, contingent stimulation of stuttering was examined in the laboratory and home setting. Findings revealed that stuttering frequency was reduced in all conditions of both experiments. However, the only significant reductions occurred under the headset delivery conditions in the laboratory setting.     

Children's perceptions of popular and unpopular peers: a multimethod assessment

Children's perceptions of popular and unpopular peers were examined in 2 studies. Study 1 examined the degree to which 4th-8th-grade boys and girls (N = 408) nominated the same peers for multiple criteria. Children viewed liked others as prosocial and disliked others as antisocial but associated perceived popularity with both prosocial and antisocial behavior. In Study 2, a subset of the children from Study 1 (N = 92) described what makes boys and girls popular or unpopular. Children described popular peers as attractive with frequent peer interactions, and unpopular peers as unattractive, deviant, incompetent, and socially isolated. In both studies, children's perceptions varied as a function of the gender, age, and ethnicity of the participants.     

Consistency in catecholamine excretion in laboratory and natural settings: correlational and variance components analyses

Data from 20 healthy male subjects were used to evaluate the consistency in catecholamine excretion in both laboratory and natural situations during approximately a 48-hr period. Correlational analyses showed high interindividual consistency in adrenaline excretion under laboratory conditions regardless of degree and kind of activity and of the interval at which measures were taken. In non-standardized natural situations the consistency was low. For nor adrenaline the pattern was less regular. Analysis of variance components showed that absolute consistency was high in both amines in situations with similar activity content and low activity level. It was found that the more similar the situations the more of variation in catecholamine excretion was due to interindividual differences and the more dissimilar the situations the more of the variation was due to interaction. It is concluded that the degree of consistency in catecholamine excretion varies with situational characteristics.     

Assessing measurement equivalence across rating sources: a multitrait-multirater approach

Research examining the structure of multisource performance ratings has demonstrated that ratings are a direct function of both who is doing the rating (rating source) as well as what is being rated (performance dimension). A separate line of research has focused on the extent to which performance ratings are equivalent across sources. To date no research has examined the measurement equivalence of multisource ratings within the context of both dimension and rating source direct effects on ratings. We examine the impact of both performance dimension and rating source as well as the degree of measurement equivalence across sources. Results indicate that (a) the impact of the underlying performance dimension is the same across rating sources, (b) the impact of rating source is substantial and only slightly smaller than the impact of the underlying performance dimension, and (c) the impact of rating source differs substantially depending on the source.