Body image and eating disorder symptoms in sexual minority men: A test and extension of objectification theory

On the basis of integrating objectification theory research with research on body image and eating problems among sexual minority men, the present study examined relations among sociocultural and psychological correlates of eating disorder symptoms with a sample of 231 sexual minority men. Results of a path analysis supported tenets of objectification theory with the sample. Specifically, findings were consistent with relations posited in objectification theory among sexual objectification experiences, internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness, body surveillance, body shame, and eating disorder symptoms. Within this set of positive relations, internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness partially mediated the link of sexual objectification experiences with body surveillance; body surveillance partially mediated the relation of internalization with body shame; and body shame partially mediated the relation of body surveillance with eating disorder symptoms. In addition to these relations, internalized homophobia was related to greater eating disorder symptoms through body shame, and recalled childhood harassment for gender nonconformity was linked with eating disorder symptoms through a positive series of relations involving internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness, body surveillance, and body shame.     

Body image disturbance in patients with borderline personality disorder: Impact of eating disorders and perceived childhood sexual abuse

Body image disturbances occur in women with borderline personality disorder (BPD). Systematic research on these characteristics in well-defined BPD groups is lacking. It is unknown, if the disturbances are related to eating disorders and childhood sexual abuse (CSA), which frequently co-occur in patients with BPD. In the present study, cognitive-affective and behavioral components of body image for 89 female patients with BPD (49 with lifetime eating disorders) and 41 healthy participants were assessed via Body Image Avoidance Questionnaire (BIAQ) and Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ). Within the BPD group, 43 patients reported a history of CSA. Compared to healthy controls, BPD patients reported significantly more negative scores in the BIAQ and the MBSRQ. Both a history of CSA and a comorbid eating disorder were independently associated with an even more negative body image. Results suggest a disturbance of cognitive-affective and behavioral components of body image in female BPD patients.     

Interpersonal Violence Victimization and Sexual Harassment: A Prospective Study of Revictimization

This study examined associations between past interpersonal victimization (including both child and adult victimization) and sexual harassment (SH); and it examined intervening and moderating variables of the association of past victimization with SH, including posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) and job-gender context. In addition, we examined an alternative hypothesis for revictimization that abuse survivors are hyper-sensitive to perceptions of sexual harassment. Employed women residing in Kentucky (U.S.) who had received an order of protection from a male partner and who were followed-up 12 months later (n?=?445, 78 % White, mean age?=?31.98, SD?=?8.60) were selected for this analysis. SH experienced between baseline and follow-up interviews was associated with baseline assessments of child nonsexual assault experiences (r?=?0.24, p?<?0.001) and intimate partner violence victimization (r?=?0.20, p?<?0.000), demonstrating a revictimization effect. PTSS mediated the relationship between child sexual assault, child nonsexual assault and subsequent SH. Further, working in a job with a male supervisor or in a male-dominated workgroup increased associations between child nonsexual abuse and subsequent SH. No support was found for the hyper-sensitivity hypothesis. Findings are consistent with prior research that identifies sexual harassment as a form of interpersonal violence that mental health and victim service providers and researchers should include in their assessment and treatment strategies. Employers should also understand that working in male-dominated work environments compound the risk of sexual harassment for those with prior abuse histories and should be vigilant to reducing these risks.     

Relations among media influence,body image,eating concerns,and sexual orientation in men: A preliminary investigation

The current study explored the relation between sexual orientation, media persuasion, and eating and body image concerns among 78 college men (39 gay; 39 straight). Participants completed measures of sexual orientation, eating disorder symptoms, appearance-related anxiety, perceived importance of physical attractiveness, perceptions of media influence, and media exposure. Gay men scored significantly higher on drive for thinness, body dissatisfaction, and body image-related anxiety than their straight counterparts. Additionally, perceptions of media influence were higher for gay men, and significantly mediated the relation between sexual orientation and eating and body image concerns. Sexual orientation also moderated the relation between perceived media influence and beliefs regarding the importance of physical attractiveness, as this relation was significant for gay men, but not straight men. The current findings suggest that gay men's increased vulnerability to media influence partially accounts for the relatively high rate of eating pathology observed in this population.     

Abusive interactions and burnout: Examining occupation, gender, and the mediating role of community

Abstract Two studies examined the association of gender and occupational group (nursing versus non-nursing) with perceived risk of abuse (sexual harassment and verbal and physical abuse) as well as the relationship of perceived abuse risk with burnout and sense of community. Study 1, comprising of two settings (tertiary care hospital, N = 3,062; psychiatric hospital, N = 383), found gender and occupational group associated with perceived risk of abuse (women felt greater risk than men; nurses felt greater risk than non-nurses). It also found a gender/occupational group interaction. Study 2, conducted at an Irish tertiary care hospital (N = 892), found nurses felt at greater risk for all three types of abuse than did non-nurses. Further, women perceived themselves at greater risk for sexual harassment and verbal abuse than did men; the study found no gender difference regarding physical abuse. The analysis identified a gender/occupational group interaction for sexual harassment. The study considers methods of reducing perceived risk in regard to the research literature on abuse at work.     

Adolescent eating disorder: bulimia

Bulimia, an eating disorder, recently has emerged as a major mental health problem, especially among adolescent females. The bulimic experiences periods of compulsive binge eating followed by purges to rid the body of unwanted calories. Binges are triggered by intense emotional experiences, such as loneliness, anger, rejection, or stress. Associated features of bulimia are secretiveness, depression, drug abuse, preoccupation with body image and sexual attractiveness, and an awareness that the behavior is abnormal. The physical side effects include dental problems, inflamed esophagus, EEG abnormalities, abdominal or urinary disturbances, and changes in blood sugar level. Cognitive disturbances related to binging and purging are perfectionistic, egocentric, and distorted thinking, misconceptions about nutritional requirements, unreasonable goals and expectations, and disturbed affect. Bulimics resist treatment; however, such methods as cognitive, group, family, behavior, and drug therapy, and hospitalization appear promising.     

A Closer Examination of Sexual Trauma During Deployment: Not all Sexual Traumas are Associated with Suicidal Ideation

Military personnel can be exposed to a wide range of sexual trauma while deployed, including sexual harassment and sexual assault. We examined whether different types of sexual trauma during deployment associated with recent suicidal ideation among previously deployed OEF/OIF/OND veterans admitted to trauma‐focused treatment (n = 199). More severe forms of sexual trauma (e.g., sexual assault) were significantly and positively associated with suicidal ideation. In contrast, sexual trauma involving verbal remarks (e.g., sexual harassment) was not associated with suicidal ideation. Our findings suggest that sexual harassment and sexual assault during deployment may be differentially associated with suicidal ideation.     

Abusive interactions and burnout: Examining occupation,gender, and the mediating role of community

Abstract

Two studies examined the association of gender and occupational group (nursing versus non-nursing) with perceived risk of abuse (sexual harassment and verbal and physical abuse) as well as the relationship of perceived abuse risk with burnout and sense of community. Study 1, comprising of two settings (tertiary care hospital, N = 3,062; psychiatric hospital, N = 383), found gender and occupational group associated with perceived risk of abuse (women felt greater risk than men; nurses felt greater risk than non-nurses). It also found a gender/occupational group interaction. Study 2, conducted at an Irish tertiary care hospital (N = 892), found nurses felt at greater risk for all three types of abuse than did non-nurses. Further, women perceived themselves at greater risk for sexual harassment and verbal abuse than did men; the study found no gender difference regarding physical abuse. The analysis identified a gender/occupational group interaction for sexual harassment. The study considers methods of reducing perceived risk in regard to the research literature on abuse at work.     

Exploring gender differences in body image,eating pathology,and sexual harassment

This study examines the relationship between body image (weight/shape concerns), eating pathology, and sexual harassment among men and women (N = 2446). Hierarchical regressions controlling for depression revealed main effects of gender such that women reported greater weight/shape concerns, eating pathology, dietary restraint, eating concerns, and binge eating compared to men. Main effects for sexual harassment indicated that as harassment increased, participants reported increased weight/shape concerns, eating pathology, dietary restraint, eating concerns, binge eating, and compensatory behaviors. There were small but significant interactions between gender and harassment for eating pathology total score (which included each of the domains listed above), weight/shape concerns, dietary restraint, and eating concerns such that the relationship between increased harassment and increased pathology was stronger for women compared to men. The largest interaction was found for compensatory behaviors, such that while women and men's scores both increased as harassment increased, the relationship was stronger for men.     

Perfectionistic self-presentation, body image, and eating disorder symptoms

A specific model for eating disorder symptoms involving perfectionistic self-presentation and two different moderators (i.e., body image evaluation and body image investment) was tested. Participants completed measures of perfectionistic self-presentation, body image dysfunction, and eating disorder symptoms. Findings indicated that all three dimensions of perfectionistic self-presentation were associated with eating disorder symptoms. Results also showed that perfectionistic self-presentation predicted eating disorder symptoms in women who were dissatisfied with their bodies, but that it did not predict eating problems in women who liked their bodies and felt there was little or no discrepancy between their actual and ideal appearances. Body image investment did not moderate the relationship between perfectionistic self-presentation and eating disorder symptoms, suggesting that ego-involvement alone is insufficient to promote eating disturbance in the context of perfectionism. The importance of self-presentation components of perfectionism and specific body image difficulties in predicting eating disorder symptoms are discussed.     

SEXUAL HARASSMENT AND ASSAULT

An extensive body of literature has documented the widespread and damaging nature of sexual harassment and assault on college campuses, yet little research has investigated the impact of such victimization on the academic climate. This study examined experiences of sexual harassment and assault among 1,037 female undergraduate and graduate students, with a particular focus on educational outcomes. Multivariate analyses of variance revealed significant negative effects of harassment and assault on perceptions of academic climate. We also investigated the extent and effects of double victimization (i.e., experiences of both harassment and assault), as well as the relationships among sexual harassment types, incidence rates, and frequencies. Issues of sexual orientation and race/ethnicity are explored throughout the article, with membership in different groups affecting victimization incidence rates as well as harassment labeling.     

Sexual Abuse and Eating Disorders: A Test of a Conceptual Model

To provide a better conceptual understanding and to stimulate further research, A. Kearney-Cooke and R. H. Striegel-Moore (1994) proposed several theoretical models concerning the relationship between sexual abuse and eating disorders. In this study, we tested the model that hypothesized an indirect relationship between sexual abuse and eating disorders, with the effects of sexual abuse being mediated through bodily shame and body disparagement. Three hundred thirty female undergraduates from a large southwestern public university participated. The women represented the social class of the university, which is predominantly middle to upper-middle class. Race/ethnicity of the participants was 69.8% Caucasian, 15.9% African American, 5.8% Latino/Mexican American, 4.9% Asian American, and 0.9% Native American; the remainder did not indicate their race/ethnicity. Of the total sample, 60% reported having been sexually abused at some point in their lives; 21% had experienced abuse prior to age 14. Almost 8% were categorized as having a diagnosable eating disorder, whereas another 72.7% were symptomatic. To test the hypothesized model, structural equation modeling with LISREL 8.3 (K. G. Joreskog & G. Sorbom, 1999) was used. Results indicated that the model fit the data well and the hypothesized relationships among the variables were in the expected directions. Sexual abuse predicted higher levels of bodily shame that, in turn, predicted increases in body disparagement. As expected, only body disparagement directly predicted eating disorder symptoms. Directions for future research are discussed.     

Sexual Harassment and Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms among Asian and White Women

Sexual harassment is a prevalent problem that has been associated with negative psychological and physical health outcomes. Although sexual harassment has been linked to posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms, little is known about how PTS symptoms that arose from sexual harassment experiences might be associated with psychological and physical health. This study examined the associations among sexual harassment, PTS symptoms, and psychological and physical well-being in a sample of Asian and White women. In addition, given the lack of research on sexual harassment among Asian women, we investigated the moderating role of ethnicity. Results indicated that greater sexual harassment frequency and PTS symptom severity predicted more depression, overall psychological distress, and physical symptoms. PTS symptom severity and ethnicity moderated the relationship between sexual harassment frequency and physical symptoms. We discuss the implications of these findings and directions for further research.     

Sexual Assault History and Health-Related Outcomes in a National Sample of Women

This study examined correlates of past-year chronic medical conditions and lifetime contact with health care professionals for mental health and substance abuse problems in women with differing histories of sexual victimization  ( N  = 627)  identified from the National Comorbidity Survey (e.g., assault in childhood, adulthood, or both life phases). Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and stressful life events were associated with greater odds of chronic medical conditions among women sexually assaulted in childhood only. Additional traumatic events were associated with greater odds of chronic medical conditions among victims of adult sexual assault. Older age and being married were associated with greater odds of lifetime health care professional contact for mental health/substance abuse issues among certain victim subgroups. Stressful life events were related to greater help-seeking for child victims, and traumatic events were related to greater help-seeking in adult victims. Alcohol dependence symptoms and PTSD were each associated with greater odds of lifetime health care professional contact among women victimized in both life phases, whereas depression was related to greater odds of help-seeking for women victimized in one life phase only. Psychosocial factors may play unique roles in health outcomes for women with different sexual assault histories.     

The Associations of Physical and Sexual Assault with Suicide Risk in Nonclinical Military and Undergraduate Samples

The associations of various forms of sexual and physical assault with a history of suicide attempts and recent suicide ideation were studied in two distinct samples: active duty military and undergraduate students. A total of 273 active duty Air Force personnel and 309 undergraduate students anonymously completed self‐report surveys of assault victimization, emotional distress, belongingness, recent suicide ideation, and previous suicide attempts. Among military personnel, rape, robbery, or violent assault was associated with a nonsignificant trend toward increased risk for suicide attempts, whereas physical abuse or battering as an adult was significantly associated with recent suicide ideation. Among undergraduates, unwanted sexual experiences as an adult and physical or sexual abuse as a child were significantly associated with increased risk for suicide attempt, but only unwanted experiences as an adult was significantly associated with increased risk for suicide ideation. Experiencing multiple forms of assault increased risk for suicide attempts and ideation in both groups. Results suggest that different types of assault contribute differentially to suicide risk in military versus undergraduate populations, but experiencing multiple types of assault is associated with increased risk in both groups.     

Language Impairment and Sexual Assault of Girls and Women: Findings from a Community Sample

Both children and adults with disabilities face increased prevalence of abuse and assault, including sexual assault. Women and girls are disproportionately the victims of sexual assault in both disabled and nondisabled populations. Communication difficulties have been identified as a factor that may increase the vulnerability of individuals with disabilities to sexual assault. However, few studies have examined whether language impairment increases risk for sexual assault. This study reports on a community sample of children with speech or language impairment, followed to age 25. Sexual assault history was assessed based on two questions from the Composite International Diagnostic Interview Posttraumatic Stress Disorder module. Women with language impairment (n = 33) were more likely than women with unimpaired language (n = 59) to report sexual abuse/assault, controlled for socioeconomic status. Sexual assault was associated with higher rates of psychiatric disorders and poorer functioning. Women with neither language impairment nor a history of sexual assault had fewer psychiatric disorders and higher functioning than women with language impairment and/or a history of sexual assault.     

Belastungen in der Kindheit und in der Jugend Essgestörter

Depending on definition and sample, a minority of varying size of women with eating disorders report to be victims of sexual and/or physical abuse. These stressful experiences are risk factors for mental disorders in general and not specifically for eating disorders. Parental high expectations and pre-morbid negative self-evaluation seem to be specific risk factors for anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Probably, patients with bulimia nervosa suffered more childhood adversity than those with restrictive anorexia nervosa. Patients with a history of sexual and/or physical abuse may be more severely ill and more difficult to treat than other patients with eating disorders. Careful questioning about childhood adversity seems advisable. In therapy, maintaining factors—like problems of self-esteem—are more important than predisposing or precipitating factors. For prevention, it is recommended to provide for the safety of children when treating their parents with mental illness—particularly substance use disorders—and to avoid parental high expectations.     

Psychopathology Following Interpersonal Violence: A Comparison of Risk Factors in Older and Younger Adults

A randomly selected sample of 549 women age 55 years and older and 2,669 women age 18–34 years was interviewed via telephone to determine prevalences of physical and sexual assault, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology, and depression. Prevalences of sexual and physical assaults were lower in older compared to younger women. In addition, given a trauma, prevalences and proportionate risk of posttraumatic psychopathology and depression were also lower for older, relative to younger women. Specifically, multivariate analyses revealed that sexual assault predicted only PTSD avoidance in older adults, but all forms of PTSD symptomatology and depression in younger adult women. Similarly, physical assault predicted only PTSD re-experiencing symptoms in older women, but all forms of PTSD symptoms and depression in younger women. Self-reported health status was not associated with any increased risk of psychopathology, and low income predicted increased avoidance and depression only in younger women.     

Long-term correlates of child sexual abuse: Theory and review of the empirical literature

Since Browne and Finkelhor's (1986) seminal review of the impact of child sexual abuse, there has been a dramatic increase in the child sexual abuse literature. Because of this tremendous growth in the literature, a more current review is warranted. The focus of this paper is a review of the long-term correlates of child sexual abuse published since 1987. Sexually abused subjects report higher levels of general psychological distress and higher rates of both major psychological disorders and personality disorders than nonabused subjects. In addition, child sexual abuse survivors report higher rates of substance abuse, binge eating, somatization, and suicidal behaviors than nonabused subjects. Adult survivors of child sexual abuse report poorer social and interpersonal relationship functioning, greater sexual dissatisfaction, dysfunction and maladjustment including high-risk sexual behavior, and a greater tendency toward revictimization through adult sexual assault and physical partner violence. The long-term correlates of child sexual abuse are conceptualized within a theoretical framework based on a theory of emotional avoidance. Although more recent empirical findings have demonstrated improved designs and methodology, these studies continue to be limited in their generalizability. Recommendations for future research are discussed.     

Prior interpersonal trauma: the contribution to current PTSD symptoms in female rape victims

The purpose of the current study was to disentangle the relationship of childhood sexual abuse and childhood physical abuse from prior adult sexual and physical victimization in predicting current posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in recent rape victims. The participants were a community sample of 117 adult rape victims assessed within 1 month of a recent index rape for a history of child sexual abuse, child physical abuse, other adult sexual and physical victimization, and current PTSD symptoms. Results from path analyses showed that a history of child sexual abuse seems to increase vulnerability for adult sexual and physical victimization and appears to contribute to current PTSD symptoms within the cumulative context of other adult trauma.