A developmental study of the role of word order in comprehending Hebrew

Monolingual Hebrew-speaking subjects, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 11 years old, as well as adults, were asked to interpret utterances consisting of two nouns and a verb. Some utterances included only word order cues while others included direct object marker and subject-verb gender agreement cues. Even though Hebrew word order is relatively free, when subjects used word order as an interpretive cue they generally assigned sentence relations according to the dominant SVO order of modern Hebrew. This trend was less strong for the interpretations of NNV utterances than of NVN and VNN utterances. There was no evidence of a developmental sequence for word order strategies. In addition, there was no evidence that word order, for any age group, was necessarily a dominant cue for assigning sentence relations when other linguistic information was available.     

Congruence and consistency derived from the circular and the hierarchical models as predictors of Occupational Choice Satisfaction

Peiser and Meir (Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1978, 12, 270–278) tested the predictability of Occupational Choice Satisfaction (OCS) using Holland's constructs of congruence and consistency as applied to Roe's classification of occupations and the circular structure of vocational interests. In the present study congruence and consistency are applied to the same data, but the constructs are defined according to the hierarchical model for the structure of interests (I. Gati,Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1979, 15, 90–106). The hierarchical and the circular models are found to be of similar efficiency in predicting OCS by congruence and by consistency. Each model, however, has its unique and distinctive predictions, and thus they seem to complement each other rather than to compete.     

Encoding processes in recognition and recall

The present experiments demonstrate that picture-word stimuli are differentially encoded in anticipation of a recognition test than in anticipation of a free-recall test. Subjects perform better on the retention test of which they have been informed, and different information from the stimuli is used to pass each test. These findings cannot be attributed to stimulus selection nor to pure pictorial encoding in anticipation of recognition and pure verbal encoding in anticipation of recall. Recognition is enhanced by encoding which integrates the details within each item while recall is enhanced by encoding which interrelates the items of a list.     

A hierarchical model for the structure of vocational interests

In this study a hierarchical model for the structure of vocational interests is proposed. Theoretical and methodological considerations, reanalysis of the C. E. Lunneborg and P. E. Lunneborg (Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1975, 7, 313–326) data, and an alternative interpretation of existing findings suggest that this model accounts for the interrelations among the vocational interest fields better than the hexagonal-circular models, or the four-factorial structure proposed by Lunneborg and Lunneborg (1975). The implications of this hierarchical model for vocational theory and some applications in vocational guidance are discussed.     

Yesterday,today and tomorrow

1260 American subjects were timed as they responded to one of the three questions (‘What day of the week is today?’ (Tod question), ‘What day of the week was yesterday?’ (Y question), and ‘What day of the week will tomorrow be?’ (Tom question)) at one of three times of the day (early morning, mid-day and the late evening). Response times as a function of the day on which the question was posed defined an inverted U-curve for all questions in all three conditions. The Tod question always triggered the fastest responses. In the morning, responses to the Y question were faster than responses to the Tom questions, whereas in the evening the converse was the case. At mid-day responses to the Y question were faster than responses to the Tom question at the beginning of the week and slower than those at its end. The patterns of introspection associated with the responses also defined reversed U-functions. The results are interpreted in the framework of a multi-channel spreading activation model.     

Information-gathering strategies in hypothesis-testing

Three experiments were conducted to investigate the informational factors affecting the kinds of questions people ask for testing a hypothesis about another's personality. In Experiment 1, subjects formulated by themselves questions to test either the hypothesis that the interviewee is polite or the hypothesis that he is impolite. The boundary of the hypothesis was set either at an extreme or at an intermediate point on the trait dimension. Experiment 2 also varied the location of the boundary, but the hypotheses concerned extroversion-introversion and subjects chose questions from a predetermined list of questions that asked either about extroverted features or introverted features and that were either low or high in diagnostic value. Both studies found that subjects preferred to ask about features that are consistent with the hypothesis only when the boundary was extreme. In contrast, diagnostic features were preferred in all conditions. Experiment 3 showed that subjects' judgment of the diagnosticity of the various kinds of questions for discriminating at different boundaries paralleled subjects' preferences among these questions. These results were interpreted as providing support for the diagnostic strategy in social information gathering.     

Self-assessment and task performance

The present study tested the idea that the amount of effort expended in task performance is a function of the amount of uncertainty in one's ability level the resulting outcomes are expected to reduce. Two determinants of expected uncertainty reduction were manipulated: prior uncertainty about one's ability level and the diagnosticity of the task. Subjects first performed an initial task and then received fictitious feedback to manipulate their prior uncertainty. To induce low uncertainty, the feedback implied that the subjects are highly likely to have either low, intermediate, or a high level of ability. To induce high uncertainty, the feedback implied that the various ability levels were equally probable. Subjects then performed a task whose perceived diagnosticity regarding the ability under consideration was varied. As expected, subjects who were highly uncertain about their ability level performed better than subjects who were relatively certain they possessed either low, intermediate, or a high level of ability. Performance also improved with task diagnosticity, and the effect of task diagnosticity on performance was more pronounced when prior uncertainty was high than when it was low. Past research on the relationship between prior feedback and subsequent performance was discussed in light of the present results and a self-assessment model of achievement behavior.     

Processing the information contained in another's behavior

This study investigates attributions based on behavior congruent with situational demands (in-role) and those based on behavior incongruent with situational demands (out-of-role). By analyzing these processes in terms of a Bayesian inference model, it was possible to determine (a) the diagnostic values observers intially assign to behaviors, (b) the actual informational impact of these behaviors, and (c) the degree of optimality in processing information contained therein. The main results can be summarized as follows: (1) The diagnostic value and actual informational impact of out-of-role behaviors were much higher than those of inrole behaviors. (2) Information about out-of-role behaviors was less optimally processed than information about in-role behaviors. (3) Observers assigned smaller diagnostic values to behaviors which were described in great detail than to behaviors which were described in summary statements. (4) Observers' attitudes influenced their initial beliefs about the actors but not the processing of new information about the actor. (5) The Bayesian inference model predicted observers' inferences reasonably well.     

A disposition-behavior congruity model of perceived freedom

Three experiments were conducted to test a disposition-behavior congruity model of perceived freedom. The model was applied to attributions of freedom to actors who possess one of several dispositions and who can choose a behavior that is congruent or incongruent with this disposition. The model posits that attributions of freedom to an actor can be predicted from the conditional probabilities that the actor would choose each behavior available to him if he possessed the disposition congruent with it. This hypothesis was supported. However, contrary to expectations, the contribution to judgment of each conditional probability was not a function of the probability that the actor actually possessed the behavior-congruent disposition.     

Piaget's theory of space perception in infancy.

Piaget's theory of space perception in infancy is presented in the format of a hypothetico-deductive system. Eleven hypotheses are defined, regarding the perception of the agent of visual change; shape and size constancy; depth; and the perception of higher-order relationships among spatial elements. The proof Piaget offers for each hypothesis is presented in the following steps: behavioral evidence, interpretation in terms of inner states; inferences and generalizations. Presuppositions underlying the arguments are explicated. Critical notes are inserted whenever appropriate. Some general conclusions are briefly discussed.     

Lateralization effects in lexical decision tasks

Subjects were timed as they judged whether items presented to them were English words or not. Comparisons were made between responses to nouns and to verbs, on the one hand, and between concrete and abstract nouns, on the other hand. No asymmetries were found.     

A response set analysis of developmental differences in children's moral judgments

The study tested the hypotheses that 1) children may not adopt a moral response set when faced with moral dilemmas and 2) their knowledge of what constitutes a moral constellation of behaviors may differ from that of adults and may lead to developmental differences. To test these hypotheses, the study examined children's responses to a multiple choice moral dilemmas questionnaire under neutral instructions, instructions to answer as a good child or as a bad child. Subjects in fourth and seventh grade were asked whether a story hero would transgress and were required to justify their answers. In addition, questions regarding affective reactions to transgressions, confessions, and due punishment were asked. Fourth grade children answering in the good child instructions condition tended to give significantly different responses than under neutral instructions, while seventh grade subjects did not tend to differentiate between these two instruction conditions. While adult theories of morality would predict a differentiation between good and bad child instructions, on some of the measures no differences were found between good and bad child instructions. The implications of these results for cognitive-developmental theory were discussed and a general framework for interpreting the data was offered.     

Testing models for the structure of vocational interests

Several studies aimed at testing the validity of Holland's hexagonal and Roe's circular models of interests showed results on which the null hypothesis of random arrangement can be rejected, and the investigators concluded that the tested models were supported. None of these studies, however, tested each model in its entirety. The present study is based on the assumption that the rejection of the null hypothesis of chance is not rigorous enough. Reanalysis of 13 data sets of published studies, using a more rigorous method, reveals that although the random null hypothesis can in fact be rejected in 11 data sets, the hexagonal-circular model was supported by only 2 data sets and was rejected by 11 data sets. The hierarchical model for the structure of vocational interests (I. Gati, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1979, 15, 90–106) was submitted to an identical test and was supported by 6 out of 10 data sets, including 4 data sets that rejected the hexagonal-circular model. The predictions of each of the models which tend to be discontinued by empirical data were identified. The implications of the findings for the structure of interests and occupational choice are discussed.     

The elimination of learned helplessness deficits as a function of induced self-esteem

The efficiency of induced self-esteem in reducing various deficits caused by learned helplessness was tested in this study. Sixty undergraduate students were divided into three equal groups. The first group received uncontrollability treatment, the second received controllability treatment, and the third received no treatment. The subjects in the first two groups were asked to reduce the anxiety reaction of a confederate, as shown on an oscilloscope, by talking to him. The anxiety waves were shown on the oscilloscope and were preprogrammed so that subjects in the uncontrollability treatment group experienced lack of control over the results, while the ones in the controllability group were led to belive that they successfully controlled the changes of the confederate's anxiety. Then, half of the subjects in each of the three groups received positive feedback on their personality, while the other half received no feedback. In the last phase all subjects participated in a word recognition task using a tachistoscope operated by a combined push-button and microphone device. Response latency, number of correct identifications, and persistence in the task were recorded. In addition, the subjects completed a mood scale. The results indicate that subjects who received induced self-esteem treatment showed significantly more deficit reversal as reflected in response latency, persistence, feelings of potency, and sadness. The results are discussed in relation to (a) the assumption regarding the similarities between learned helplessness and depression, and (b) the usefulness of induced self-esteem as a form of treatment for helplessness depression.     

Some antecedents of work-nonwork conflict

This study examined the relationships of three aspects of work schedules—shiftwork, length of workday, and work during weekends and holidays—with the perceived interrole conflict between work and nonwork. Personal background variables and characteristics of the work role itself were hypothesized to be directly related to the level of conflict and, in addition, to moderate the work schedules-conflict relationships. Subjects were 286 hotel employees. As expected all three aspects of work schedules were related to the level of felt work-nonwork conflict. Personal background variables were not related in any way to the level of conflict. Job satisfaction and organizational role conflict were found to be directly related to the level of interrole conflict and, in addition, to moderate the work schedules-conflict relationships. Together, job-related variables and the interactions among them accounted for over 50% of the variance in work-nonwork conflict.     

Sexual fantasizing in males and females

Sexual fantasizing during intercourse, masturbation, and nonsexual activity was examined in 30 males and 30 females, American students at Tel-Aviv University. Each subject responded individually to questionnaires involving general background information, sexual activity, daydreaming frequency and attitudes toward daydreaming, and a sexual fantasy scale. The results indicated that virtually no man or woman denied having sexual fantasies. Any observable sex differences were in kind rather than amount of fantasy. Women had more submission fantasies, whereas men reported more performance fantasies. This difference was interpreted as reflecting social sexual stereotypes. In support of a cognitive skill model, it was found that sexual fantasizing proliferates along with increases in both sexual and daydreaming experience. Sexual passivity was related to a greater degree of fantasizing during sex. On the whole, the findings suggest that sexual fantasizing is a universal occurrence which in itself is not necessarily related to psychopathology.     

Developmental differences in memory for temporally neutral and temporally tagged information

Forty children (ages 7 and 11 years) listened to stories and then answered questions about temporally neutral and temporally tagged information appearing in them (e.g., “Linda is smart” vs “Linda ate an apple”). Number of presentations and free recall of the stories were manipulated to study age-related changes in the effects of additional processing on memory for the two kinds of information. Older children exhibited overall better memory, but with additional processing that difference was larger for temporally neutral than for temporally tagged information. The observed interactions among age, additional processing, and kind of information demonstrated the importance of the distinction between temporally neutral and temporally tagged information for developmental studies of memory for prose.     

Memory and intelligence: Age and ability differences in strategies and organization of recall

Proficiency at organizing information for recall is one aspect of memory functioning which could be expected to be related to intelligence, or general ability. Comparisons of children of average and of superior ability (Kuhlmann-Anderson scores) in a multitrial free-recall learning task confirmed this prediction: Both level of recall and amount of sequential organization were significantly higher for the superior ability groups. Mental age definitions of intelligence imply that equivalent performance by children of different chronological ages will be based on qualitatively similar cognitive processes. This assumption was not confirmed. Age-related changes in mnemonic strategies were not associated with ability-related differences in recall or organization. Some features of memory development are more dependent on age, whereas others are more dependent on ability. The latter may be best explained in terms of production inefficiency (Flavell, 1970).     

Classification and identification in an aphasic patient

An aphasic patient was presented with a number of classification and identification tasks. The patient did better in classifying alphanumeric characters on various levels of abstraction than in identifying them. In another test the patient classified animals, birds, and flowers. His mistakes were interpreted as a consideration of characteristic features with a disregard of defining ones. The data are discussed in light of current research in cognitive psychology.     

Congruency,consistency, and differentiation of vocational interests as predictors of vocational satisfaction and preference stability

The Ramak interest inventory (Meir, E. I. Manual for the Ramak and Courses interest inventories, 1975; Barak, A. & Meir, E. I. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1974, 4, 377–387), together with an occupational choice satisfaction (OCS) inventory, was administered to 158 males and 202 females who had responded to the Ramak 7 years before. The results of the study show: (a) congruence (Holland, J. L. Making vocational choices, 1973) correlated positively with males' and females' OCS (p < .01), while consistency and differentiation correlated with males' OCS when vocational interests were congruent with occupational field; (b) congruency, consistency, and differentiation all had a positive effect on OCS of males (p < .05); (c) when there was incongruency, no negative correlations between consistency and differentiation on the one hand and OCS on the other were found; (d) for males and females, positive correlations (p < .05) were found between congruency, consistency, differentiation, and stability of occupational interests; and (e) differentiation measured in percentages was found valid twice. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.