AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOUR TO LIGHT IN THE PROTOZOA TETRAHYMENA: The effect of a gradual versus an abrupt boundary between dark and light

B ergström , S. R. Avoidance behaviour to light in the Protozoa Tetrahymena. The effect of a gradual versus an abrupt boundary between dark and light. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1969, 10 , 81–88.—Samples of Tetrahymena, trained to avoid light, were placed in the dark part of a partially lighted chamber. The frequency of animals entering the lighted part through a gradual and through an abrupt boundary between dark and light was observed. It was found that a gradual boundary was a much more effective obstacle to the animals than an abrupt one.     

INDUCED AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOUR IN THE PROTOZOA TETRAHYMENA

B ergstrom , S. R. Induced avoidance behaviour in the Protozoa Tetrahymena. Scand.J. Psychol ., 1968, 9, 215–219.—A sample of Tetrahymena, exposed to a series of light and electric shocks paired, was placed in a partially lighted glass chamber. During the first three minutes the number of animals in the lighted parts of the chamber decreased, and an essentially smaller proportion of the sample was then found in the light, in comparison with control samples, which had received either shocks or light or neither of the two stimuli.     

AMOUNT OF INDUCED AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOUR TO LIGHT IN THE PROTOZOA TETRAHYMENA AS A FUNCTION OF TIME AFTER TRAINING AND CELL FISSION

B ergström , S. R. Amount of induced avoidance behaviour to light in the Protozoa Tetrahymena as a function of time after training and cell fission. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1969, 10 , 16–20.—Two cultures of Tetrahymena, dividing synchronously after exposure to an alternating heat treatment, were exposed to series of light and electric shocks paired. After 20 and 30 exposures resp. to the stimulus combination, samples of these cultures were drawn every 18 min and placed in a partially lighted chamber. In samples drawn shortly after training, an essentially smaller proportion was found in the light, in comparison with control samples, which had received either shocks or light or neither of the two stimuli. In later samples, this proportion increased until it approached level of control samples. The course of the increase was not influenced by intervening synchronous cell division.     

ACQUISITION OF AN AVOIDANCE REACTION TO LIGHT IN THE PROTOZOA TETRAHYMENA

B ergström , S. R. Acquisition of an avoidance reaction to light in the Protozoa Tetrahymena. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1968, 9 , 220–224.—A culture of Tetra-hymena, dividing synchronously after exposure to an alternating heat treatment, was exposed to a series of light and electric shocks paired. Samples of this culture were drawn after 1, 6, 11, 16, 21, 26, and 31 exposures to the stimulus combination and were then placed in a partially lighted chamber. With an increasing number of stimulus presentations, the proportions of the samples found in the lighted parts decreased, while they remained roughly constant in control samples which had received either shocks or light or neither of the two stimuli.     

Working memory involved in predicting future outcomes based on past experiences

Deficits in working memory have been shown to contribute to poor performance on the Iowa Gambling Task [IGT: Bechara, A., &; Martin, E.M. (2004). Impaired decision making related to working memory deficits in individuals with substance addictions. Neuropsychology, 18, 152–162]. Similarly, a secondary memory load task has been shown to impair task performance [Hinson, J., Jameson, T. &; Whitney, P. (2002). Somatic markers, working memory, and decision making. Cognitive, Affective, &; Behavioural Neuroscience, 2, 341–353]. In the present study, we investigate whether the latter findings were due to increased random responding [Franco-Watkins, A. M., Pashler, H., &; Rickard, T. C. (2006). Does working memory load lead to greater impulsivity? Commentary on Hinson, Jameson, and Whitney’s (2003). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory &; Cognition, 32, 443–447]. Participants were tested under Low Working Memory (LWM; n = 18) or High Working Memory (HWM; n = 17) conditions while performing the Reversed IGT in which punishment was immediate and reward delayed [Bechara, A., Dolan, S., &; Hindes, A. (2002). Decision making and addiction (part II): Myopia for the future or hypersensitivity to reward? Neuropsychologia, 40, 1690–1705]. In support of a role for working memory in emotional decision making, compared to the LWM condition, participants in the HWM condition made significantly greater number of disadvantageous selections than that predicted by chance. Performance by the HWM group could not be fully explained by random responding.     

REFRAINING AND THE EXTERNAL

It is usually taken for granted that the necessary and sufficient conditions for refraining are with respect to mental or behavioral states of agents. Let us call such accounts internalist conceptions of refraining. In this paper, I argue that internalist conditions are insufficient for refraining; and so internalist conceptions of refraining are inadequate. I conclude that a proper account of refraining must contain an externalist condition – i.e., a condition that makes reference to an agent's environment.     

Books received

Analytical Psychology
Guggenbühl, Allan., The Incredible Fascination of Violence: Dealing with Aggression and Brutality Among Children.
Bradway, Kay & McCoard, Barbara., Sandplay – Silent Workshop of the Psyche.
Psychoanalysis
Segal, Hanna., Psychoanalysis, Literature and War.
Psychotherapy
White, Andy., Going Mad to Stay Sane – The Psychology of Self-Destructive Behaviour.
Reeve, Gillian & Nesbitt, Jo., The Desperate Woman's Guide to Therapy.
Miscellaneous
Schmidt Neven, Ruth., Emotional Milestones – From Birth to Adulthood: A Psychodynamic Approach.     

TRANSITION FROM ROD TO CONE VISION I. Simultaneous contrast

S tabell , B. Transition from rod to cone vision. I. Simultaneous contrast. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1969, 10 , 61–64.—Above the specific threshold, color quality depended on the test filter, while at lower intensities the same color was observed irrespectively of the test filter used, confirming the assumption that colors within the photochromatic interval are triggered by rod activity. The lawful relation between rise of specific threshold and increase of rod sensitivity was not found under the condition of simultaneous contrast.     

Book reviews

Casement, Ann, Carl Gustav Jung
Meier, C. A. (ed.), Atom and Archetype. The Pauli/Jung Letters, 1932–1958
Young-Eisendrath, Polly and Miller, Melvin E. (eds.), The Psychology of Mature Spirituality
Falzeder, E. and Brabant, E. et al. (eds.), The Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sandor Ferenczi (Volume 3, 1920–1933)
Pally, R., The Mind-Brain Relationship
Edinger, Edward F., Ego and Self: The Old Testament Prophets – From Isaiah to Malachi     

Policy conflict and policy change as a function of task characteristics II. The effect of task predictability

Brehmer, B. Policy conflict and policy change as a function of task characteristics. II. The effect of task predictability. Scand. J. Psychol., 1973, 14, 220–227.-The hypothesis, derived from experimental studies on policy formation, that the level of agreement reached in a policy conflict situation is positively related to the predictability of the policy task was tested in an experiment conducted in the "lens model" interpersonal conflict paradigm. The results supported the hypothesis, and showed the lower level of agreement in the low task predictability condition was due to the fact that the subjects' policies were less consistent in that condition. The similarity of the systematic aspects of the subjects' policies, on the other hand, was not affected by task predictability.     

Different ways of looking at unpleasant truths: How construal levels influence information search

When not knowing the negative outcome of past decision, people search for more information even when it confirms their negative suspicion. What drives this information search is the hope that the unpleasant state of “not knowing” ends when one faces the truth [Shani, Y., Tykocinski, O. E., &; Zeelenberg, M. (2008). When ignorance is not bliss: How distressing uncertainty drives the search of negative information. Journal of Economic Psychology, 29, 643–653; Shani, Y., &; Zeelenberg, M. (2007). When and why do we want to know? How experienced regret promotes post-decision information search. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 20, 207–222]. Previous research suggests that adopting high- or low-level construals of a situation can increase or decrease the affective value of experiences [Metcalfe, J., &; Mischel, W. (1999). A hot/cool-system analysis of delay of gratification: Dynamics of willpower. Psychological Review, 106, 3–19, Mischel, W., Ayduk, O., &; Mendoza-Denton, R. (2003). Sustaining delay of gratification over time: A hot–cool systems perspective. In G. Loewenstein &; D. Read (Eds.), Time and decision: Economic and psychological perspectives on intertemporal choice (pp. 175–200). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation; Trope, Y., Gervey, B., &; Bolger, N. (2003). The role of perceived control in overcoming defensive self-evaluation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 407–419]. We propose that the need to know the potentially hurtful truths about one’s own decision increases when people adopt a low-level construal, but it decreases when people adopt a high-level construal. In five experiments, we manipulated construal levels and assessed the effects on information search and the underlying psychological process.     

QUANTITATIVE PSYCHOPHYSICAL AND ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGICAL DATA ON SOME ODOROUS COMPOUNDS

D rake , B., J ohansson , B., von S ydow , E. & D øving , K. B. Quantitative psychophysical and electrophysiological data on some odorous compounds. Scand.J. Psychol ., 1969, 10 , 89–96.—Magnitude estimations of odor intensity, and electrophysiological responses from frog olfactory epithelia, were obtained for dilution series of 8 odorous compounds. Comparing of data with each other and with known vapor phase concentrations showed relations between pooled psychophysical data and vapor phase concentrations, and between electrophysiological data and vapor phase concentrations, describable by power functions (exponents 0.26–0.50 and 0.18—0.39). There were also high correlations between electrophysiological data and individual as well as pooled psychophysical data. The results give an impression about the feasibility of using a biological detector in gas chromatography.     

ELECTRODERMAL RESPONSES AS A FUNCTION OF QUANTIFIED THREAT

N iemelá , P. Electrodermal responses as a function of quantified threat. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1969, 10 , 19–56.—Threat was quantified by means of a 20 sec anticipation condition where the subject knew the exact time for the expected shock in advance, as well as the exact probability of receiving a shock. The probabilities used where 0.00, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75 and 1.00. The electrodermal responses (the amplitude of the skin resistance response, the amplitude of the skin potential response, and the number of electrodermal responses) during the anticipation period were found to vary systematically as functions of the probability of shock, and as functions of the time elapsed from the beginning of the experiment.     

BRIDGING PHYSIOLOGY AND PHENOMENOLOGY IN DYNAMIC PSYCHOLOGY

R asmussen , E. T ranekjær . Bridging physiology and phenomenology in dynamic psychology. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1961, 2, 161–166.—It is important to distinguish between the immediately experienced (the phenomenological) and the physiological-neurological basis for the phenomenological world, e.g. between beta needs (subjectively experienced states of needing or wanting) and alpha needs (objectively defined, physiological needs). The concept of psychon is introduced and defined as a necessary and sufficient condition in the physiological-neurological system for the existence of a subjective experience; psychon bridges the gap between the physiological and the phenomenological world.     

A COMPARISON BETWEEN CHILDREN AND ADULTS IN A PRISONERS' DILEMMA GAME

S jöberg , L., B okander , I., D encik , L. & L indbom , K. A comparison between children and adults in a prisoner's dilemma game. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1969, 10 , 158–166.— A comparative study using three different stooge strategies. The game was played for a total of 67 trials. Children (4–6 years old) exhibited more cooperation than adults, and a stronger tendency to make a cooperative move after own defection, regardless of outcome. Both the frequency of cooperative moves and the state-conditioned propensities showed some stability over time and similar intercorrelations for adults and children.     

DIAGNOSTIC EXPLOITATION OF VISUAL AFTEREFFECT MEASURES IN A MODERATELY DEPRESSIVE PATIENT GROUP

SMITH, G. J. W., FRIES, I., ANDERSSON, A. L. & RIED, J. Diagnostic exploitation of visual aftereffect measures in a moderately depressive patient group. Scand. J. Psychol. , 1971, 12, 68–79.–A group of 39 moderately depressive patients were tested before and after therapy with two serial aftereffect tests. One of them concerned size, intensity, and color of projected afterimages (AI), the other the duration of spiral aftereffects (SAE). AI and SAE data correlated highly with psychiatric ratings of depressive retardation, anxiety, and compulsion. These correlations formed the nucleus of three independent dimensions in a factorial space.     

EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION AND FEEDBACK ON COGNITIVE CONFLICT

BREHMER, B. Effects of communication and feedback on cognitive conflict. Scand. J. Psychol. , 12, 205–216.–The effects of communication and feedback upon policy similarity and policy consistency in cognitive conflict were studied in a 2×2×5 factorial experiment with communication (present/ absent), feedback (present/absent) and blocks of trials as the factors. Communication increased policy similarity and agreement, but feedback had no effect. Both subjects with linear and subjects with nonlinear policies gave up more of their initial policy in the communication condition, but only the nonlinear subjects managed to utilize communication to acquire new policies. In all conditions, including the condition without feedback and communication, the nonlinear subjects' policies were less consistent than those of the linear subjects. This suggests that nonlinear policies may be less stable than linear policies.     

SUBJECTIVE TEMPORAL DISTANCE AND EMOTIONAL INVOLVEMENT

BRATFISCH, O., EKMAN, G., LUNDBERG, U., and KRÜGER, K. Subjective temporal distance and emotional involvement. Scand. J. Psychol. , 1971, 12, 147–160. –Three experiments were conducted in which subjects were required to estimate the subjective temporal distances of various historical periods, each of which was named after some person, event, or social process. In all, 65 subjects participated. In related experiments the same subjects estimated their degree of emotional involvement in what might have happened to people living during the various periods named. Using the actual dates when the events took place, the relation between objective and subjective temporal distance was found to be described by a simple power function. Emotional involvement was shown to be inversely related in a simple monotonic manner to both subjective and objective temporal distance, when other variables were so far as possible held constant. A number of different alternative power functions as well as an exponential and a logarithmic function were fitted to the empirical data. A specific type of power function with three empirical constants and a simple exponential function were found to describe experimetal data to a good approximation.     

A semantics-based approach to the "no negative evidence" problem

Previous studies have shown that children retreat from argument-structure overgeneralization errors (e.g., * Don't giggle me ) by inferring that frequently encountered verbs are unlikely to be grammatical in unattested constructions, and by making use of syntax-semantics correspondences (e.g., verbs denoting internally caused actions such as giggling cannot normally be used causatively). The present study tested a new account based on a unitary learning mechanism that combines both of these processes. Seventy-two participants (ages 5–6, 9–10, and adults) rated overgeneralization errors with higher (* The funny man's joke giggled Bart ) and lower (* The funny man giggled Bart ) degrees of direct external causation. The errors with more-direct causation were rated as less unacceptable than those with less-direct causation. This finding is consistent with the new account, under which children acquire—in an incremental and probabilistic fashion—the meaning of particular constructions (e.g., transitive causative = direct external causation) and particular verbs, rejecting generalizations where the incompatibility between the two is too great.     

Awareness, conditioning, and information processing in complex learning situations

Lindahl, Maj-Britt. Awareness, conditioning, and information processing in complex learning situations. Scand. J. Psychol., 1973, 14, 121–130.-Learning without awareness was studied with a method involving three phases for each of 2. 10 subjects: (1) a problem solving phase, (2) a phase of applying the solution found in (1), and (3) a test phase. In (2) the solution was applied to the classification of 50 successively presented instances. These were in one condition sampled so that a perceptually easily discriminable basis of classification obtained that was different from and redundant to the one of the solution of phase (1). The results of the test phase showed that this redundant basis of classification influenced the performance of the subjects in this condition despite unawareness of it according to verbal reports. The phenomenon was interpreted as a case of learning without awareness, describable in conditioning terms, that influenced performance. The limitations of this type of learning were discussed, and its relationship to an aware information processing type of learning was outlined.