Relating other's behaviour to own behaviour: Effects of delayed response and task difficulty

120 Ss from age groups 8, 12 and 16 years were tested for their understanding that another person's (O) sadness response was related to a preceding behaviour in S. The understanding was tested after experimental interaction episodes where E's assistant (O) worked on an (easy or difficult) task, was helped by S, and responded (immediately or delayed) with sadness. The results showed that a relating of O's behaviour to S was shown primarily for Ss in the two oldest age groups, and primarily when O's response was immediate. A delay of 11/2 min in O's response resulted in attributions of O's behaviour to psychological processes in O rather than to S's behaviour. The youngest Ss focused on O in explaining O's behaviour. Task difficulty did not effect Ss causal attributions.     

Quantifying aggression: Effects of identity of stimulus

A test for children's insight into relations between behaviour and aggressive emotion showed that kindergarten children showed an increase in ratings of emotion corresponding to an increase in aggressive behaviour (positive relation), and that an increase in ratings of emotions corresponding to a decrease in aggression-related behaviour (negative relation) was shown by seven- and nine-year-old children. Cognition of relations between aggressive emotion and behaviour seemed to be developed earlier than cognition of relations between intention and behaviour as observed in a previous study. Results from the test also indicated that the magnitude of emotion ratings differed in identity (same stimulus person) and non-identity (differed stimulus persons) stimulus conditions.     

Impulse characteristics in rapid movement: implications for impulse-variability models

Three untested assumptions of the impulse-variability model were examined in two experiments utilizing rapid, uni-planar limb movements. Experiment 1 varied movement distance (A) and movement time (MT) in a rapid-timing paradigm where the subject moved a lever through a certain distance in a certain time. Experiment 2 varied A in a reversal response where the S made a rapid elbow flexion and extension in a given MT. Displacement recordings were made on every trial. KR (knowledge of results) about MT was given after every trial. The results can be summarized as follows: (a) As predicted by the model, variations in impulse size and velocity were directly related to the impulses size; (b) There was no correlation between the accelerative and decelerative impulse durations recorded during the reversal response supporting the notion that the impulses might be independent; (c) Negative correlations (-.20 to -.50) were demonstrated between peak acceleration and impulse duration for both experiments, counter to the predictions of the model; and (d) Counter to the predictions of the model, timing error (VEt) increased as A decreased for rapid-timing responses. When the correlational results are taken into account, the model has the capacity to account for curvilinear relationships between relative timing error and movement speed. Overall, the results suggest that the impulse variability model requires some restructuring before it can be considered a viable model for the control of rapid limb movements.     

Teachers do not Deal in Widgets

Although the use of merit pay, incentive pay, bonus pay, and job promotion are well-established measures in the private or corporate sector of American society, few examples of successful teacher merit pay systems exist. In 1983, the Eastern Washington University Department of Education surveyed six major private corporations to determine whether corporate merit pay programs could be applied to teachers and educational institutions. Survey findings suggest several reasons why merit pay programs for teachers will probably fail: (a) lack of monetary goals; (b) the necessity for subjective evaluation, which requires multiple measurement devices, extensive supervision, and time; (c) the absence of a many-tiered corporate structure in most educational institutions; and (d) increased supervisory direction that could stifle creativity and flexibility.     

Adapted character styles of Vietnam veterans with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

A total of 189 male Vietnam veterans who were admitted to a specialized inpatient treatment program were evaluated using the Millon Clinical Multiphasic Personality Inventory to assess character styles. The veterans were assessed for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder by using a subscale of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and 72% of the patients were classified as having Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. The character styles of passive-aggressive, schizoid, avoidant, and borderline were significantly associated with these patients. The most common 2-point profile was passive-aggressive and avoidant (8-2 or 2-8) and was significantly related to the diagnosis. While drug and alcohol abuse were common problem areas for the entire sample, the profile of patients with Posttraumatic Stress was different from those of substance abusers. These results indicate that treating Vietnam veterans with this disorder requires adopting strategies which include a character style focus as well as a symptom focus.     

Traditional Christian Belief and Belief in the Supernatural: Diverging Trends in the Netherlands Between 1979 and 2005?

Is there an ongoing decline in religious beliefs in the Netherlands? Using cross-sectional data from 1979 up to 2005, we focus on traditional Christian faith and belief in the supernatural; the literature suggests that they undergo diverging trends. We first describe these trends using the Social and Cultural Developments in the Netherlands surveys covering the 1979–2005 period. Explanations for the trends are formulated and tested using OLS regression models and a counterfactional simulation technique. Our findings indicate that during the 1979–2005 period both traditional Christian faith and belief in the supernatural declined, although the latter at a slower rate. Since church membership rates are continuously declining as well, belonging and believing still go hand in hand in the Netherlands. The most important explanation for both the decline in traditional Christian faith and the decline in belief in the supernatural is the slow but continuous replacement of older religious affiliated cohorts with younger nonaffiliated cohorts.     

Thinking about muscles: the neuromuscular effects of attentional focus on accuracy and fatigue

Although the effects of attention on movement execution are well documented behaviorally, much less research has been done on the neurophysiological changes that underlie attentional focus effects. This study presents two experiments exploring effects of attention during an isometric plantar-flexion task using surface electromyography (sEMG). Participants' attention was directed either externally (towards the force plate they were pushing against) or internally (towards their own leg, specifically the agonist muscle). Experiment 1 tested the effects of attention on accuracy and efficiency of force produced at three target forces (30, 60, and 100% of the maximum voluntary contraction; MVC). An internal focus of attention reduced the accuracy of force being produced and increased cocontraction of the antagonist muscle. Error on a given trial was positively correlated with the magnitude of cocontraction on that trial. Experiment 2 tested the effects of attention on muscular fatigue at 30, 60 and 100%MVC. An internal focus of attention led to less efficient intermuscular coordination, especially early in the contraction. These results suggest that an internal focus of attention disrupts efficient motor control in force production resulting in increased cocontraction, which potentially explains other neuromechanical findings (e.g. reduced functional variability with an internal focus).