A behavior-analytic critique of Bandura's self-efficacy theory

A behavior-analytic critique of self-efficacy theory is presented. Self-efficacy theory asserts that efficacy expectations determine approach behavior and physiological arousal of phobics as well as numerous other clinically important behaviors. Evidence which is purported to support this assertion is reviewed. The evidence consists of correlations between self-efficacy ratings and other behaviors. Such response-response relationships do not unequivocally establish that one response causes another. A behavior-analytic alternative to self-efficacy theory explains these relationships in terms of environmental events. Correlations between self-efficacy rating behavior and other behavior may be due to the contingencies of reinforcement that establish a correspondence between such verbal predictions and the behavior to which they refer. Such a behavior-analytic account does not deny any of the empirical relationships presented in support of self-efficacy theory, but it points to environmental variables that could account for those relationships and that could be manipulated in the interest of developing more effective treatment procedures.     

A scale for measuring persistence in children

Persistence and its assessment have been studied since the 1920s. One common approach in measuring persistence has been through testing the subject's ability to solve difficult or monotonous problems. Another approach has been through questionnaires. Although persistence is very important in academic achievement and in the general development of personality, no questionnaires have been developed for measuring persistence in children. The present research concerns the development of such a scale. It includes 40 items and was tested on 322 Israeli children aged 7-13. The internal reliability of the scale (Cronbach alpha) was .66, and the test-retest reliability after 6 months was .77. The scale differentiated active gymnasts from non-gymnasts as well as persistent gymnasts from dropout gymnasts. In addition, significant correlations were found between the scale and the need-persistence measure of the Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Study, Locus of Control, and other measures. We discuss these findings along with the significance of persistence in everyday life.     

Variable-interval schedules of timeout from avoidance

Rats were trained on concurrent schedules in which pressing one lever postponed shock and pressing the other occasionally produced a 2-min timeout during which the shock-postponement schedule was suspended and its correlated stimuli were removed. Throughout, the shock-postponement schedule maintained proficient levels of avoidance. Nevertheless, in Experiment 1 responding on the timeout lever was established rapidly, was maintained at stable levels on variable-interval schedules, was extinguished by withholding timeout, was reestablished when timeout was reintroduced, and was brought under discriminative control with a multiple variable-interval extinction schedule of timeout. These results are in contrast with Verhave's (1962) conclusion that timeout is an ineffective reinforcer when presented to rats on intermittent schedules. In Experiment 2 the consequence of responding on the timeout lever was altered so that the shock-postponement schedule remained in effect even though the stimulus conditions associated with timeout were produced for 2 min. Responding extinguished, indicating that suspension of the shock-postponement schedule, not stimulus change, was the source of reinforcement. By establishing the reinforcing efficacy of timeout with standard variable-interval schedules, these experiments illustrate a procedure for studying negative reinforcement in the same way as positive reinforcement.     

目的、意向和意识

本文提出了一个意向性目标搜寻的计算机模型,它有两个部分,静态部分包括一个目标表征和到达这个目标的程序。动态部分是一个感觉输入、中间信息加工,行为输出的重复的反馈循环。人类意向必然伴有意识,但机器人则可能无意识而有意向。 利用目标搜寻系统机器人模型,我们对目标搜寻系统的目的连续统下了定义;这个连续统从简单的直接反应系统一直到意向性系统。对这个目的连续统有两种传统的解释:一是柏拉图、亚里士多德和普罗提诺的终极原因理论,二是希腊原子论者和现代进化生物学家的还原主义学说。本文评价了这些学说。 本文考察了几种类型的意识机能,提出了以自动机为依据的意识理论,比较了人类和计算机。从计算机结构的角度来看,人类意识是一类特殊的计算机控制系统。     

攻击的社会性认知学习的调节

这项研究探索了小学儿童的攻击与影响儿童是否采取攻击行为的社会认知的两个等级的联系.给攻击性和非攻击性的儿童(平均年龄为11.3岁)提供二个调查表,让他们进行回答.一个调查表是测量儿童对自己进行攻击的能力及相应的行为的认识(即自我实力的认识),而另一个调查表则测量儿童对攻击性行为会得到的奖励和惩罚的后果的认识.     

对算术和阅读中的成就与态度的长远预见

 这项纵向研究的目的在于了解:(1)在幼儿园里所提供的认知任务对儿童的学业成就的预见性;(2)教师和母亲对儿童的一般认知能力和实际成就的评价对于学业态度的预言性.在进入幼儿园以前对儿童进行初试,255名幼儿园儿童被追踪到一、二、三、五、十年级,认知任务中的一个分项目与中学成就分数保持着相关,特别是在阅读方面.十年级儿童的能力的自我概念、成功期望、成功的价值以及对任务难度的认识都表现出性别和学习内容范围的影响.男孩往往偏爱算术,而女孩则更喜欢阅读.儿童的学业态度与母亲对他的早期评价及实际成就分数都有相关,女孩尤为如此.母亲的评价与女孩对算术的态度有正相关.在全部11个年龄时期中都存在着性别差异.     

性别标定和性别类型行为的选择

本研究采用性别标定作业,测验了43名出生21个月到40个月的儿童辨别男女孩和男女成人图片的能力,并在通常按性别类型分的三种行为(选择玩具、攻击性和同龄游戏伙伴的选择)上对通过性别作业的儿童(平均年龄30个月)与未通过性别作业的儿童(平均年龄26个月)进行了比较.本研究预测,通过了性别作业的儿童会选择同性伙伴和更有性别特点的玩具,通过了性别作业的女孩攻击性会减弱,男孩则没有变化.但结果只证实了攻击性和选择同龄伙伴的预测,选择玩具的预测则没有得到证实.     

儿童的模仿和语言发展

某些关于儿童语言获得研究者认为,模仿与言语获得没有关系(Slobin,1967).早在六十年代,不少人研究了儿童直接模仿成人句子的效果(Brown,Bellugi,1964;Cazden1965).他们认为,尽管模仿在儿童语音、新词语的获得和习惯语表达方面起着重要作用,但是,并不能说明模仿在儿童句法获得中起作用.Slobin(1967)指出,在某种情况下,儿童能对成人的句子正确地模仿,只是能模仿的这些句子比儿童自发的句子(Spontaneous sentences)稍长或稍复杂些.我们认为,这种模仿能加强儿童的句法能力,因此有利于儿童下一阶段句法能力的发展.近些年来,Bloom,Hood和Lightbown(1974)提供了儿童早期言语发展的证据,表明有模仿倾向的儿童似乎是通过模仿来掌握新的语义句法关系以及新的词汇、习语.有模仿倾向的儿童在语气材料和上下文知识的处理中是积极的.这些研究涉及到句法,也涉及到发展方面的作用.     

悖论,类型论以及解救悖论的其它方法(续)

罗素的观点看来是主张,类型论提供了避免一切悖论的方法,此外类型论在本质上还是这种方法的理论基础。让我们依次来考虑这两点。晚近的作者在所谓“语义悖论”和集合论悖论之间作出了区分,而罗素没有这样做。埃匹曼尼德悖论被称为语义悖论,因为它在本质上涉及到真的概念(谎话是不真的);并且“真”被称作一种语义关系,因为它是     

运动心理学的历史和当前的研究课题

一、历史运动心理学的基础在于运动学习和动作操作。1920年之前,就有少数人单独地进行一些零星分散的调查。这些调查推动了各种心理变量影响动作操作的研究。首先在美国发表的是观众对自行车比赛的影响。在1918年,伊利诺斯大学的心理学家C·R·格里菲斯对足球运动员和篮球运动员的反应时进行了比较,这仅仅为以后的研究播下了一些种子。在此期间,其它国家(苏联、德国和日本)也有类似的研究。 1920—1940年间,有些人对运动心理学的研究发生了特殊的兴趣。美国的运动心理学之父 C·R·