词频和年级对FOK判断的影响

本实验以识记材料的词频高低和被试年级为自变量对被试元记忆监测的FOK(feeling of knowing)判断进行研究。实验采用Hart提出的RJR(回忆—FOK判断—标准测验 )的经典范式。结果表明 :被试的年级影响FOK判断等级和准确性 ,大学生的FOK判断等级和准确性均高于高一年级学生 ;识记材料词频影响FOK判断等级的高低 ,不影响FOK判断准确性 ,被试对高频词对的FOK判断等级高于对低频词对的FOK判断等级 ,但FOK判断准确性无明显差异。     

“知道自己知道”与“知道自己不知道”——一项有关知道感（FOK）的脑成像研究

采用事件相关功能性磁共振成像技术（event-related fMRI）以及在FOK（feeling-of-knowing）研究中常用的“线索回忆-FOK判断-再认测验”（Recall-Judgment-Recognition,RJR）程序,以汉字词对为识记材料,研究了FOK判断中的大脑活动区域。根据FOK判断的正负以及其后的再认测验的对错,实验将FOK判断的项目分为四类：PP项目（正性FOK判断,正确再认）,NN（负性FOK判断,错误再认）,NP（负性FOK判断,正确再认）以及PN（正性FOK判断,错误再认）。脑成像的分析结果显示：准确的FOK预测（即PP与NN项目）与不准确的FOK预测（即NP与NP项目）在脑活动上没有显著的差异。而进一步分析表明,这种“无差异”的现象可能是由于PP项目与NN项目激活了不同的脑活动模式所造成的。具体地讲,相对于NN项目而言,PP项目伴随有明显的左侧前额叶（BA 8区）的活动。这一观察提示我们：知道感（PP）与不知道感（NN）可能是由不同的脑神经网络所支持、并通过不同的认知过程来实现的。     

学前儿童FOK判断及其产生机制的实验研究

FOK(Feeling—of—knowing)是元记忆监测性判断的一种重要形式,当前探讨的热点问题是FOK在记忆信息加工中的作用以及其背后的产生机制问题。关于其产生机制问题,目前已提出两种假说:即靶项目提取可能性假说和线索熟悉性假说。本实验的目的是揭露影响FOK判断的因素及FOK的产生机制。实验的另一个目的是探讨学前(大班)儿童被试是否有FOK判断的能力。实验被试是24名幼儿园大班的儿童,并使用了中文字词做学习材料,要求被试完成词对学习、FOK判断、迫选再认等一系列任务。实验结果表明:学前大班儿童有进行FOK判断的能力;本实验中影响FOK判断的因素主要是词对间有无意义联系,倾向于靶项目提取可能性假说。     

高强迫症状个体的定向遗忘和元记忆

将定向遗忘和FOK判断的范式相结合,探讨高强迫症状被试（HOC）和低强迫症状的控制组（LOC）在不同词语类型的条件下,线索回忆和元记忆判断的定向遗忘效应的差异。实验结果表明,HOC组在中性词语条件下比LOC组表现出更低的定向遗忘效应。FOK的结果表明HOC被试对于不同条件的元记忆的分辨能力比LOC组要差,他们在威胁性词语方面,对未来记忆任务的成绩也没有预测性。研究结果从一定程度上支持强迫症的一般记忆损伤模型     

SPT效应的自动突显机制:来自输出监测的证据

研究采用"对回忆的再认"范式,从输出监测的角度考察了操作效应的提取机制。实验1结果显示,被试操作任务条件下的自由回忆的系列位置成绩缺乏首因效应,却拥有扩展的近因效应;被试操作任务条件下的"对回忆的再认"成绩显著差于语词任务下的成绩,差异具体表现在组块2~9、10、11和12上,表明在上述组块,被试操作任务条件下的提取存在自动突显,即操作效应得益于这些组块在提取时的自动突显。实验2结果显示,在类别测验下,被试操作任务和语词任务的自由回忆成绩拥有相似的系列位置曲线,而"对回忆的再认"结果同实验1。研究认为自由回忆的系列位置效应与自动突显机制之间不存在直接的因果关系,而"对回忆的再认"范式则能敏感地测量出操作效应的提取机制。     

FOK研究中一种新的标准测验——过度重复学习

提出FOK研究中一种新的标准测验形式——过度重复学习,并验证过度重复学习作为FOK研究的标准测验的可行性;另外还比较了作为标准测验,过度重复学习与再认的差别。同时,还探索了FOK判断中存在的两种错误类型——替代性错误和忽略性错误在FOK判断等级和标准测验成绩方面的差异。两个实验结果表明：FOK判断在预期随后的标准测验(过度重复学习和再认)成绩上是有准确性的;过度重复学习可以作为一种标准测验。实验结果还显示：替代性错误比忽略性错误的FOK判断等级要高;且无论是用再认还是用过度重复学习做标准测验,都能检验出两种错误类型项目在记忆激活强度上的差异。     

知道感（FOK）和不知道感（FOnK）的实验分离

新近的脑成像研究结果提示：“知道感”（FOK）与“不知道感”（FOnK）可能是由两种不同的认知与脑机制所实现的。尽管这一设想质疑了以往的知道感研究中对此二者不加区分的处理方法,但脑成像研究在本质上是一种相关研究,因而并不能提供因果性的推论。这项行为实验将加工深度对FOK和FOnK的影响分开来加以考察,结果发现：深度加工只能使FOK的预测准确性增加,但却不但不能使FOnK的预测准确性增加,反而会使之降低。上述结果在（1）被试内设计,（2）被试间设计,（3）排除熟悉性所导致的不确定的再认等三种情况下都成立。上述结果为知道感的“双过程假设”提供了来自行为研究的证据。     

中英流行背景音乐对大学生中英词汇记忆的影响

本研究探讨了无背景音乐、中文流行背景音乐和英文流行背景音乐对熟悉与不熟悉中英字词记忆的影响。以90名通过CET6的大学生为被试。实验1使用熟悉中英名词各32对进行即时回忆任务。实验2增加了任务难度,使用不熟悉中英字词各10个进行即时再认任务。结果表明,无音乐条件下记忆量显著高于中英流行音乐条件;在实验1中,中文流行音乐条件下对熟悉词汇的回忆量显著低于英文流行音乐条件;在实验2中,中英文流行音乐条件下的词汇再认量没有显著差异,但中文流行音乐条件下对中文不熟悉字词识记干扰更小,英文流行音乐条件下对英文不熟悉字词识记干扰更小,提示听觉输入语言熟悉度和视觉任务难度都会影响无关言语效应的大小,听觉语言熟悉度的影响受视觉任务难度高低的制约。     

自由回忆中元记忆监控的作用及其影响因素

采用“类信号检测论方法”,通过两个实验,研究了在记忆信息提取过程中元记忆的预见性监测判断（Feeling-of-knowing）和元控制的作用及其影响因素。实验一探讨了识记材料的难易、识记遍数对元监测判断以及输出控制中的反应标准是否有影响;实验二探讨了严格和宽松的奖惩条件对输出控制中反应标准的影响。用计算机随机呈现识记用的词表材料,识记之后让被试进行FOK等级判断和自由回忆,再用“类信号检测论”方法统计实验数据,分析各种条件下回忆成绩、FOK判断等级,计算出相应的符合率和反应标准。实验一结果表明,不同材料难度和识记遍数下的回忆成绩和FOK判断等级差异显著,但输出控制中的反应标准值没受这些因素的影响;实验二结果是严格和宽松奖惩条件下的反应标准值差异显著,严格条件下的反应标准显著高于宽松条件下的反应标准,表明奖惩条件对信息提取中的反应标准有显著影响     

知道感与不知道感：两种不同的认知加工过程——一项来自行为实验的证据

脑成像研究表明,准确的知晓感（FOK）可以分为知道感和不知道感,两者可能依赖不同的大脑机制实现。该研究通过两个实验,检验了线索和靶子的频率对FOK判断准确性的影响,并在行为水平上考察了“知道感和不知道感可能通过不同的认知过程来实现”的假设。实验一表明：靶子字的频率对FOK判断的准确性有影响,即靶子为低频字时,FOK判断的准确性降低;同时,线索和靶子的字频对知道感和不知道感判断的等级没有影响。实验二显示：线索熟悉性只影响准确的不知道感判断等级,而靶项目强度只影响准确的知道感判断等级,即产生了非交叉的双重分离。综上,我们发现了靶子的字频对FOK判断准确性的影响,并从行为实验的角度证实,知道感和不知道感依赖不同的认知加工过程。     

Faster might not be better: Pictures may not elicit a stronger unconscious priming effect than words when modulated by semantic similarity

It has been suggested that unconscious semantic processing is stimulus-dependent, and that pictures might have privileged access to semantic content. Those findings led to the hypothesis that unconscious semantic priming effect for pictorial stimuli would be stronger as compared to verbal stimuli. This effect was tested on pictures and words by manipulating the semantic similarity between the prime and target stimuli. Participants performed a masked priming categorization task for either words or pictures with three semantic similarity conditions: strongly similar, weakly similar, and non-similar. Significant differences in reaction times were only found between strongly similar and non-similar and between weakly similar and non-similar, for both pictures and words, with faster overall responses for pictures as compared to words. Nevertheless, pictures showed no superior priming effect over words. This could suggest the hypothesis that even though semantic processing is faster for pictures, this does not imply a stronger unconscious priming effect.     

Presentation format effects in working memory: The role of attention

Four experiments are reported in which participants attempted to remember three or six concrete nouns, presented as pictures, spoken words, or printed words, while also verifying the accuracy of sentences. Hypotheses meant to explain the higher recall of pictures and spoken words over printed words were tested. Increasing the difficulty and changing the type of processing task from arithmetic to a visual/spatial reasoning task did not influence recall. An examination of long-term modality effects showed that those effects were not sufficient to explain the superior performance with spoken words and pictures. Only when we manipulated the allocation of attention to the items in the storage task by requiring the participants to articulate the items and by presenting the stimulus items under a degraded condition were we able to reduce or remove the effect of presentation format. The findings suggest that the better recall of pictures and spoken words over printed words result from the fact that under normal presentation conditions, printed words receive less processing attention than pictures and spoken words do.     

认知负载对基于动机的情绪刺激加工的影响

结合数数任务和情绪flanker任务,探究不同认知负载条件下,高低趋近动机对情绪刺激加工的影响。结果发现：高负载组中,高趋近动机条件下,对积极目标刺激的反应显著快于消极目标刺激;低趋近动机条件下,对消极目标刺激的反应显著快于积极目标刺激。且高负载组中,各条件下的反应大多都显著慢于低负载组。低负载组中没有发现各条件之间的差异。结果表明,高负载条件下,高趋近动机促进了积极情绪刺激的加工,低趋近动机促进了消极情绪刺激的加工,高负载在一定程度上阻碍了情绪刺激的加工。     

认知负载对基于动机的情绪刺激加工的影响

结合数数任务和情绪flanker任务,探究不同认知负载条件下,高低趋近动机对情绪刺激加工的影响。结果发现：高负载组中,高趋近动机条件下,对积极目标刺激的反应显著快于消极目标刺激;低趋近动机条件下,对消极目标刺激的反应显著快于积极目标刺激。且高负载组中,各条件下的反应大多都显著慢于低负载组。低负载组中没有发现各条件之间的差异。结果表明,高负载条件下,高趋近动机促进了积极情绪刺激的加工,低趋近动机促进了消极情绪刺激的加工,高负载在一定程度上阻碍了情绪刺激的加工。     

Selective disruption of hypermnesia for pictures and words

In this study, we investigated the effects of various interpolated tasks on hypermnesia (improved recall across repeated tests) for pictures and words. In five experiments, subjects studied either pictures or words and then completed two free-recall tests, with varying activities interpolated between the tests. The tasks performed between tests were varied to test several hypotheses concerning the possible factor(s) responsible for disruption of the hypermnesic effect. In each experiment, hypermnesia was obtained in a control condition in which there was no interpolated task between tests. The remaining conditions showed that the effect of the interpolated tasks was related to the overlap of the cognitive processes involved in encoding the target items and performing the interpolated tasks. When pictures were used as the target items, no hypermnesia was obtained when subjects engaged in imaginal processing interpolated tasks, even when these tasks involved materials that were very distinct from the target items. When words were used as the target items, no hypermnesia was obtained when the interpolated tasks required verbal/linguistic processing, even when the items used in these tasks were auditorily presented. The results are discussed in terms of a strength-based model of associative memory.     

Cultural differences in distraction processing: influence of context at retrieval

Cultural differences in information processing affect perceptual judgment, attention, and memory. We investigated whether cultural differences in processing patterns, specifically East Asian participants’ tendency to encode holistically, compared to Western tendencies to process analytically, affect performance on an implicit memory test. First, participants completed a 1-back task on pictures with superimposed distracting words. After a delay filled with a computerised Corsi block task, they performed a word fragment task in which some fragments could be completed with the distracting words from the 1-back task. Critically, fragments were presented with the same pictures as previously seen (matched condition), with no pictures (control condition), or with pictures from other trials on the 1-back task (mismatched condition). Non-Asian Canadian participants showed virtually no priming for distraction, independent of the reinstatement of encoding context. East Asian Canadian participants showed superior priming for fragments that had been paired with their original pictures. They did not show evidence of a detriment for the mismatched, relative to control, condition.     

中性抽象词和具体词情绪信息获得的差异

采用词汇迫选学习范式考察不同类型词汇获得情绪信息的认知机制。结果发现：（1）在迫选过程中与积极图片匹配的具体词汇喜好度显著高于与消极图片匹配的喜好度,而抽象词学习并未表现出这样的效应。（2）积极图片下被选择词汇的喜好度显著高于未被选择词汇的喜好度,而消极图片下被选择词汇与未被选择词汇的喜好度差异不显著。该结果表明具体词相较于抽象词更易获得相应情绪信息,积极情绪比消极情绪信息更易被习得。     

Alternative processes in the identification of familiar pictures

Individual differences in perceptual processing were investigated in a task requiring subjects to match words (either general or specific category names) with simultaneously presented pictures. Based on the results of previous research, individual differences in processing were inferred from the effect, on "same" reaction time, of rotating the pictures into an unfamiliar orientation. For subjects inferred to emphasize an analytic mode of processing, word-picture matches were faster for general than for specific category names, supporting the hypothesis that analytic subjects would attend to the minimal number of features necessary to infer the categorical identity of the pictures. For subjects inferred to emphasize a structural mode of processing, there was little difference in word-picture matching time between specific and general category names, supporting the hypothesis that structural subjects would attend to all the information in the pictures, regardless of the category level specified by the word.     

Tracing the time course of picture--word processing

A number of independent lines of research have suggested that semantic and articulatory information become available differentially from pictures and words. The first of the experiments reported here sought to clarify the time course by which information about pictures and words becomes available by considering the pattern of interference generated when incongruent pictures and words are presented simultaneously in a Stroop-like situation. Previous investigators report that picture naming is easily disrupted by the presence of a distracting word but that word naming is relatively immune to interference from an incongruent picture. Under the assumption that information available from a completed process may disrupt an ongoing process, these results suggest that words access articulatory information more rapidly than do pictures. Experiment 1 extended this paradigm by requiring subjects to verify the category of the target stimulus. In accordance with the hypothesis that picture access the semantic code more rapidly than words, there was a reversal in the interference pattern: Word categorization suffered considerable disruption, whereas picture categorization was minimally affected by the presence of an incongruent word. Experiment 2 sought to further test the hypothesis that access to semantic and articulatory codes is different for pictures and words by examining memory for those items following naming or categorization. Categorized words were better recognized than named words, whereas the reverse was true for pictures, a result which suggests that picture naming involves more extensive processing than picture categorization. Experiment 3 replicated this result under conditions in which viewing time was held constant. The last experiment extended the investigation of memory differences to a situation in which subjects were required to generate the superordinate category name. Here, memory for categorized pictures was as good as memory for named pictures. Category generation also influenced memory for words, memory performance being superior to that following a yes--no verification of category membership. These experiments suggest a model of information access whereby pictures access semantic information were readily than name information, with the reverse being true for words. Memory for both pictures and words was a function of the amount of processing required to access a particular type of information as well as the extent of response differentiation necessitated by the task.