The Relationship Between Parental Variables,Empathy and Prosocial-Flow with Prosocial Behavior Toward Strangers,Friends, and Family

The goal of this study was to explore the relationship between two different aspects of the parent–child relationship (parental challenge and authoritative parental style) and empathy as well as prosocial flow with prosocial behavior toward strangers, friends, and family. The participants were 422 young adults who were enrolled in undergraduate social responsibility courses at a University. The results show that the combination of parental support and parental challenge has an important influence on prosocial flow and on positive behavior such as prosocial behavior toward friends and family, but no influence on that toward strangers. Moreover, in the same way, empathy and prosocial flow promote prosocial behavior toward these three targets. The interpretations of these findings are delineated in the discussion.     

Ostracism and prosocial behavior: A social dilemma perspective

Prior research has yielded mixed findings regarding the relation of ostracism to prosocial behavior, with studies indicating ostracism leads people to become less prosocial, more prosocial, or that prosocial behavior is unaffected by workplace ostracism. By conceptualizing prosocial behavior at work as a social dilemma, we hypothesized that whether or not individuals reduce prosocial behaviors following ostracism can be understood by how individuals manage the conflict between the immediate temptation to treat others poorly and the long-term benefits of not giving into such temptations. Across three studies – a scenario (Study 1), experimental (Study 2), and field study on employed adults (Study 3) – we find support for the hypothesis that individuals who are less (versus more) oriented towards future outcomes engage in less prosocial behaviors with others who have ostracized them during prior interactions. We discuss both the practical and theoretical implications of these findings.     

God is watching you: priming God concepts increases prosocial behavior in an anonymous economic game

We present two studies aimed at resolving experimentally whether religion increases prosocial behavior in the anonymous dictator game. Subjects allocated more money to anonymous strangers when God concepts were implicitly activated than when neutral or no concepts were activated. This effect was at least as large as that obtained when concepts associated with secular moral institutions were primed. A trait measure of self-reported religiosity did not seem to be associated with prosocial behavior. We discuss different possible mechanisms that may underlie this effect, focusing on the hypotheses that the religious prime had an ideomotor effect on generosity or that it activated a felt presence of supernatural watchers. We then discuss implications for theories positing religion as a facilitator of the emergence of early large-scale societies of cooperators.     

声誉关注与社会距离对伤害困境中道德决策的影响：来自行为与ERPs的证据

在社会交往中, 声誉关注是人类合作行为和道德判断的重要决定因素之一。以往研究只是单独考察声誉关注或社会距离会如何影响道德决策行为, 但两者如何交互影响道德决策尚不清楚, 尤其是禁止性道德范畴领域(如, 伤害他人行为)下道德决策的认知神经机制。本研究要求被试在匿名或公开情境下决策是否愿意对不同社会距离他人(朋友、熟人、陌生人)实施疼痛电击以增加自己的金钱收益, 同时记录其决策时的行为和神经反应。结果发现, 匿名情境下被试对朋友的电击伤害要显著低于对熟人和陌生人的, 表现出一种明显的“利己的利他主义”决策倾向; 与朋友和陌生人相比, 被试在涉及熟人的两难决策中花费了更长的时间, 体验到了更强烈的厌恶情绪, 并诱发了更大波幅的与情绪反应有关的P260成分, 以及与认知推理有关的晚期正成分(LPP: 300~450 ms), 表现出一种典型的“熟人效应”。然而, 行为与ERP指标上的这些差异在公开情境下均显著减弱了。这表明个体在禁止性道德范畴领域下的道德决策遵循着一种“利己的利他主义”的道德原则, 熟人关系的不确定性会在道德决策中诱发强烈的负性情绪和认知负荷, 而声誉关注削弱了利己倾向和人际关系的不确定性所带来的厌恶情绪和认知冲突。     

Friend versus foe: Neural correlates of prosocial decisions for liked and disliked peers

Although the majority of our social interactions are with people we know, few studies have investigated the neural correlates of sharing valuable resources with familiar others. Using an ecologically valid research paradigm, this functional magnetic resonance imaging study examined the neural correlates of prosocial and selfish behavior in interactions with real-life friends and disliked peers in young adults. Participants (N = 27) distributed coins between themselves and another person, where they could make selfish choices that maximized their own gains or prosocial choices that maximized outcomes of the other. Participants were more prosocial toward friends and more selfish toward disliked peers. Individual prosociality levels toward friends were associated negatively with supplementary motor area and anterior insula activity. Further preliminary analyses showed that prosocial decisions involving friends were associated with heightened activity in the bilateral posterior temporoparietal junction, and selfish decisions involving disliked peers were associated with heightened superior temporal sulcus activity, which are brain regions consistently shown to be involved in mentalizing and perspective taking in prior studies. Further, activation of the putamen was observed during prosocial choices involving friends and selfish choices involving disliked peers. These findings provide insights into the modulation of neural processes that underlie prosocial behavior as a function of a positive or negative relationship with the interaction partner.     

共情对灾后青少年亲社会行为的影响：感恩、社会支持和创伤后成长的中介作用

以雅安地震极重灾区芦山县的542名中学生为被试, 在地震发生3.5年后, 采用人际反应指数量表测查被试的共情能力, 并在震后4.5年采用感恩问卷、社会关系网络问卷、创伤后成长问卷和亲社会行为问卷测查被试的感恩、社会支持、创伤后成长(posttraumatic growth, PTG)和亲社会行为, 从追踪的视角考察地震后青少年的共情能力对亲社会行为的影响, 并探讨感恩、社会支持和创伤后成长(PTG)在其中的中介作用。结果显示, 共情可直接正向预测亲社会行为; 共情对亲社会行为的预测可分别通过感恩、社会支持和PTG的中介进行; 共情还可以分别通过感恩经社会支持、感恩经PTG、社会支持经PTG、感恩经社会支持再经PTG的链式中介对亲社会行为起到正向预测作用。这一发现提示, 未来的创伤后心理辅导工作应更加关注青少年的积极心理和社会行为的发展。     

“追名弃利”：权力动机与社会存在对亲社会行为的影响

目前关于权力动机的研究主要关注权力动机的阴暗面, 但是对权力动机的积极面尚不清楚。本研究从公平与合作行为的角度出发, 分别采用最后通牒博弈和公共物品博弈任务, 探讨不同权力动机水平个体在内隐(眼睛线索)或外显(他人在场)社会存在下的亲社会行为是否不同。结果发现, 在眼睛线索或他人在场条件下, 相对于低权力动机者, 高权力动机者表现出更高的公平与合作水平。然而当没有社会存在线索时, 高低权力动机者的亲社会行为没有显著差异。结果提示高权力动机者出于名誉和地位的策略考虑, 也会表现出积极的亲社会行为。     

Alone but together,autonomous but related: Self‐construal effects on happiness in social experiences

Communal tables and open workspaces have become popular servicescapes, that is, contemporary spaces for experiencing, dining, or working alone but together. Previous research demonstrates that experiencing with close others (e.g., with friends or family) increases happiness and satisfaction, but experiences shared with strangers in contexts such as communal tables or workshops have not yet been thoroughly analyzed. Addressing this research gap from a social–psychological perspective, we suggest that even though individuals are generally happier when they share experiences with loved ones, self‐construal plays a moderating role in the relationship. Individuals with high autonomy and high relatedness do not anticipate greater happiness from experiences shared with friends than with those shared with strangers. Three experimental studies (two online and one field) demonstrate this effect, using different operationalizations of autonomy relatedness. Managerial implications are discussed, and suggestions are made for future research.     

Effect of an observer's presence on facial behavior during dyadic communication

In everyday life, people communicate not only with another person but also in front of other people. How do people behave during communication when observed by others? Effects of an observer (presence vs absence) and interpersonal relationship (friends vs strangers vs alone) on facial behavior were examined. Participants viewed film clips that elicited positive affect (film presentation) and discussed their impressions about the clips (conversation). Participants rated their subjective emotions and social motives. Durations of smiles, gazes, and utterances of each participant were coded. The presence of an observer did not affect facial behavior during the film presentation, but did affect gazes during conversation. Whereas the presence of an observer seemed to facilitate affiliation in pairs of strangers, communication between friends was exclusive and not affected by an observer.     

社会压力与决策角色对不同人际敏感性个体助人决策的影响

本研究基于人格的交互作用理论,通过时间与金钱两种助人决策情景,设计两个实验考察了人际敏感性特质对个体助人决策的影响,以及决策角色与社会压力两种情境因素在其中的作用。结果发现：(1)相比低人际敏感性,高人际敏感性个体更容易做出助人决策;(2)相比低社会压力,高社会压力下,高人际敏感性比低人际敏感性个体捐助的金钱更多; (3)高社会压力下,相比低人际敏感性个体,高人际敏感性个体为朋友与陌生人决策时会捐助更多的金钱。研究表明：人际敏感性影响个体的助人决策,决策角色与社会压力会对不同人际敏感性个体的助人决策有不同程度的影响。     

权力感与亲社会倾向：自我获益的中介和情境的调节作用

本研究基于情境聚焦理论探讨权力感与亲社会倾向的关系,以及自我获益和情境所起的作用。两项研究通过测量一般权力感（研究一, N= 271）和启动权力感（研究二, N=139名）,考察权力感在不同情境（合作vs.竞争）中的亲社会倾向。结果发现：自我获益在权力感与亲社会倾向之间存在中介作用,竞争合作情境能够调节权力感与自我获益的关系从而影响亲社会倾向,在竞争下,高权者感知到更少获益,表现出更少的亲社会倾向,在合作情境下则相反。     

亲子关系和朋友支持对流动儿童情绪和行为适应的保护作用

以1008名初中流动儿童为研究对象,在压力背景下探讨亲子关系和朋友支持对流动儿童不同情绪适应（孤独感、社交焦虑）和行为适应结果（问题行为、亲社会行为）的保护作用,并揭示二者保护作用的适用领域及其差异。结果表明：（1）亲子关系显著预测行为适应,朋友支持显著预测情绪适应和亲社会行为。（2）亲子关系能够缓解压力事件对流动儿童问题行为的消极作用。（3）朋友支持能够缓解压力事件对流动儿童孤独感和社交焦虑的消极作用。（4）尽管亲子关系和朋友支持都能够缓解压力事件对流动儿童亲社会行为的消极作用,但压力事件较少时二者的保护效应更强。这提示流动儿童与父母和朋友的紧密情感联结能够缓解压力事件对其情绪和行为适应的消极作用：父母是缓解行为适应问题的保护因素,朋友是缓解情绪适应问题的保护因素;积极行为适应能够同时获益于父母和朋友支持。     

Inferring the emotions of friends versus strangers: the role of culture and self-construal

Three studies examined cross-cultural differences in empathic accuracy (the ability to correctly infer another's emotional experience) within the context of different relationships. East-West cultural differences in self-construal were hypothesized to differentiate levels of empathic accuracy across relationship types. In contrast to the independent self prevalent among members of Western cultures, members of Eastern cultures generally view the self as interdependent with those with whom they have a relationship. Easterners, relative to Westerners, are more concerned with the thoughts or feelings of close others and less concerned with the thoughts or feelings of those with whom they have no relational link (i.e., strangers). Across three studies, the authors found that East Asians, compared with European Americans, made more accurate inferences regarding the emotions of close others (i.e., friends), but less accurate inferences regarding the emotions of strangers. Furthermore, individual differences in interdependent self-construal among East Asians predicted the degree of empathic accuracy.     

I love you too much to keep social distance: Closeness in relationships and (dis)engagement in preventive behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic

Although we are witnessing a new phase in the management of COVID-19, understanding what predicts adherence to preventive behaviors still remains crucial. In this study we focus on interpersonal relationships by specifically investigating whether engagement in preventive behaviors when in the presence of others may be a function of the type of relationship (in terms of closeness) one has with others. Because close others are often perceived similar to the self compared to strangers, we put forward that close relationships may inadvertently decrease COVID-19 risk perceptions which may ultimately decrease compliance with recommended behaviors when in their presence. To test this hypothesis, 747 Italian respondents were invited to answer one out of four versions of a questionnaire differing on the target (i.e., friends vs. parents vs. grandparents vs. strangers), including questions regarding COVID-19 risk perceptions and intentions to engage in preventive behaviors. Mediation analysis showed that close relationships (i.e., with friends, parents, and grandparents) compared to nonclose relationships (i.e., with strangers) predicted lower intentions to engage in preventive behaviors via lower risk perceptions. Altogether, these results shed light on the role played by closeness in indirectly shaping individuals' dis(engagement) in preventive behaviors and contribute to better understand possible unconscious biases which may undermine our safety during the COVID-19 pandemic.     

心理距离与后果严重性对人身安全决策的影响

已有研究发现决策者在为自己与不同他人决策时,其风险偏好存在差异。但是当对后果严重性不同的事件进行决策时,上述结果也并不总是如此。为了探究在人身安全情境中决策者面对后果严重程度不同的任务时,为自己和为他人决策时风险偏好的差异,实验一采用人际亲密度和决策所带来消极结果的严重程度分别操纵心理距离与后果严重性,结果发现决策者在后果严重任务中的决策比后果不严重任务更保守,为自己和为陌生人决策均比为最好朋友决策更冒险。这可能是由于决策者知觉到的决策责任不同所致。因此在实验一的基础上实验二引入决策责任这一变量,考察其在心理距离对风险决策影响中的作用,研究结果证明了我们的假设。     

Peer Influence: Mechanisms and Motivations

This research addresses a question that has not been previously – why do youths try to influence their friends’ behavior? Analysis of written accounts of peer influence toward both deviance and conformity reveals clear differences in motives for peer influence toward prosocial and deviant behavior. Influence toward deviant behavior is much more likely to be motivated by selfish concerns, and influence toward prosocial behavior is more likely to be motivated by altruistic concerns. These findings are consistent with the control theory view that crime and deviance is asocial behavior, and not the result of strong social ties to others.     

Oxytocin Receptor (OXTR) Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms Indirectly Predict Prosocial Behavior Through Perspective Taking and Empathic Concern

Engaging in prosocial behavior can provide positive outcomes for self and others. Prosocial tendencies contribute to the propensity to engage in prosocial behavior. The oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) has also been associated with prosocial tendencies and behaviors. There has been little research, however, investigating whether the relationship between OXTR and prosocial behaviors is mediated by prosocial tendencies. This relationship may also vary among different types of prosocial behavior. The current study examines the relationship between OXTR, gender, prosocial tendencies, and both altruistic and public prosocial behavior endorsement. Students at a midwestern university (N = 398; 89.2% Caucasian; M_age = 20.76; 26.6% male) provided self‐report measures of prosocial tendencies and behaviors and buccal cells for genotyping OXTR polymorphisms. Results indicated that OXTR single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs2268498 genotype significantly predicted empathic concern, whereas gender moderated the association between several other OXTR SNPs and prosocial tendencies. Increased prosocial tendencies predicted increased altruistic prosocial behavior endorsement and decreased public prosocial behavior endorsement. Our findings suggest an association between genetic variation in OXTR and endorsement of prosocial behavior indirectly through prosocial tendencies, and that the pathway is dependent on the type of prosocial behavior and gender.     

The perception of self and others: acquaintanceship, affect, and actor-observer differences.

Three studies were designed to examine how people perceive themselves versus others. The main finding was that people were seen as causing positive behaviors, and situational factors were regarded as causing negative behaviors (positivity effect). This positivity effect was found to operate most strongly for perceptions of intimate others, such as spouse and friends, and less strongly for strangers and liked and disliked acquaintances. There was little support for the actor-observer difference that people view their own behavior more situationally than they do other people's behavior. It was concluded that both cognitive and motivational factors must be considered in predicting how people perceive and describe others.     

Race,Religion, and Virtues

Many faith traditions emphasize the importance of adopting a range of virtues. Yet relatively few studies examine more than one virtue at a time. Moreover, researchers know relatively little about variations in the adoption of virtues, especially variations by race. The purpose of this study is to see if race differences emerge in 9 virtues: gratitude to God, humility, compassion for family and friends, compassion for strangers, providing emotional support to family and friends, providing tangible support to family and friends, providing emotional support to strangers, providing tangible support to strangers, and forgiving others. The data for this study come from a recent nationwide survey. Race differences were present in seven of the nine virtues, and in each instance the findings indicate that Blacks have higher virtue scores than Whites. The results further reveal that Blacks are likely to have higher virtue scores than Whites because they are more committed to their faith than Whites.     

人际距离和情绪知觉对利他选择的影响

本研究采用社会正念范式（SoMi）,考察不同人际距离对其社会正念利他选择的影响。结果发现：（1）不同人际关系产生的人际距离对社会正念利他选择不同,被试与陌生人的利他选择最低,与父母的利他选择其次,与朋友的利他选择略高于对父母的利他选择;（2）情绪面孔产生的人际距离越近,利他选择行为越高,人际距离越远,利他选择行为越低;高兴面孔表情利他选择频次最高,悲伤面孔表情次之,愤怒面孔表情利他选择最低。