A "Jekyll and Hyde" within: aggressive versus friendly interactions in REM and non-REM dreams

We hypothesized that representations of social interactions in REM and non-REM (NREM) dreams would reflect differing regional brain activation patterns associated with the two sleep states, and that levels of aggressive interactions would be higher in REM than in NREM dreams. One hundred REM, 100 NREM, and 100 wake reports were collected in the home from 8 men and 7 women using the Nightcap sleep-wake mentation-monitoring system and scored for number and variety of social interactions. We found that (a) social interactions were more likely to be depicted in dream than in wake reports, (b) aggressive social interactions were more characteristic of REM than NREM or wake reports, and (c) dreamer-initiated friendliness was more characteristic of NREM than REM reports. We conclude that processing of, or simulations about, selected social interactions is preferentially performed while "off-line" during the dream state, with the REM state specializing in simulation of aggressive interactions and the NREM state specializing in simulation of friendly interactions.     

The Effects of Coping-Modelling Problem Solving and Contingency Management Procedures on the Positive and Negative Interactions of Learning Disabled and Attention Deficit Disordered Children with an Autistic Peer

Two learning disabled and two learning-disabled attention deficit hyperactivity disordered boys participated in-group problem solving sessions to improve interactions with the attitudes toward a socially rejected autistic classmate. In class positive interactions and negative interactions served as individual baselines within a multiple baseline design with replications across the four students. Problem solving sessions increased positive interaction between each of the students and their autistic peer. Negative interactions, in contrast, did not decrease. Introduction of an interdependent classroom DRO subsequently reduced negative interactions. Weekly questionnaires revealed a positive shift in the residually autistic child's sociometric status. The number of interactions this student initiated with three peers and his responsiveness to those interactions initiated by two also increased.     

Supportive interactions,negative interactions,and depressed mood

Research on the association between social relationships and emotional functioning has emphasized the health-promoting effects of social support. Yet there is reason to believe that the absence of negative social interactions may be more important for mental health than the presence of supportive interactions. In this investigation we clarify important characteristics concerning the source, the recipient, and the combined influence of support and negativity. Data are presented regarding supportive and negative interactions with spouse, relatives, and friends; regression analyses suggest that negative interactions are more predictive of depressed mood than supportive interactions (specifically with spouse and friends). We also document several specifications suggesting directions for future research on the special importance of interactions in intimate relationships and the synergistic effects of situations in which supportive and negative interactions both occur.     

The causes and consequences of an avoidance-focus for interracial interactions

The current work examined the causes and consequences of non-Black people's desire to avoid interracial interactions (an avoidance-focus). Expecting to respond with racial bias in inter-racial interactions was argued to result in an avoidance-focus for such interactions, which was hypothesized to have negative implications for the quality of interracial interactions. Across three studies, feedback indicating that non-Black participants would respond with racial bias in interactions with Black people resulted in anxiety and the desire to avoid the interaction. In addition, when participants with an avoidance-focus interacted with a Black confederate (Study 2), they had shorter interactions that were rated as less pleasant by the confederate and participant as compared to those without an avoidance-focus. Avoidance-focused participants were less interested in future interactions and came across as more avoidant and biased to their partner than less avoidance-focused participants. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for racial relations.     

Social networks as assets and liabilities in recovery from stroke by geriatric patients

Interactions in the social networks of 48 elderly stroke patients were examined as factors influencing outcomes after hospital discharge. Structured interviews assessed the frequency of perceived positive and negative interactions, as well as patients' behavioral independence, time use, personal adjustment, and cognitive functioning. Negative interactions occurred less frequently than positive ones. After controlling for status at hospital discharge, negative and positive interactions differentially explained variance in morale, psychiatric symptoms, and cognitive functioning. Although negative interactions were associated with poorer morale and greater psychiatric symptoms, positive interactions were associated with less mental confusion. Patients' reporting and not reporting negative interactions did not differ significantly on a variety of social and demographic variables previously shown to predict social interactions and well-being. Findings indicate that social interactions may both impede and facilitate rehabilitation for older adults and have implications for both theories of social support and the design of therapeutic interventions.     

Sociosexuality and everyday social interaction

This study examined whether sociosexuality, a variable measuring unrestrictedness of sexual attitudes and behaviors, relates to the everyday social interactions of individuals. Sociosexuality was measured using Simpson and Gangestad's (1991a) Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI). Seventy-one participants completed daily interaction records assessing various aspects of each interaction they had over a 7-day period. The number of interactions in which they engaged, as well as the number of partners with whom they interacted, were correlated with scores on the SOL In addition, a multilevel data analytic approach was used to examine whether sociosexuality related to perceived Closeness, Quality, Negativity, and Sexual Interest during these interactions. Results were somewhat mixed. Women higher in sociosexuality reported both more extensive social networks and greater numbers of interactions, particularly with men, than women lower in sociosexuality. A marginally significant trend indicated that individuals higher in sociosexuality reported that interactions with their romantic partners contained greater Negativity than individuals lower in sociosexuality. In addition, both men and women higher in sociosexuality reported that interactions with their best friends were of poorer quality.     

Reciprocal and complementary sibling interactions,relationship quality and socio‐emotional problem solving

Associations between reciprocal and complementary sibling interactions, sibling relationship quality, and children's socio‐emotional problem solving were examined in 40 grade 5–6 children (M age = 11.5 years) from middle class, Caucasian, Canadian families using a multi‐method approach (i.e. interviews, self‐report questionnaires, daily diary checklist, narrative task). Findings demonstrated that reciprocal sibling interactions were positively associated with warmth, mutual esteem, happy daily exchanges, and negatively related to rivalry and dominance, whereas complementary interactions were positively related to upsetting daily exchanges. Further, reciprocal and complementary interactions differed significantly in relation to several relationship qualities, with reciprocal interactions emerging as a significantly stronger correlate of happy exchanges. Only reciprocal interactions were positively correlated with socio‐emotional problem solving. Finally, birth order moderated the negative association of reciprocal interactions with rivalry and dominance and the positive association with socio‐emotional problem solving. In each case, the effect was stronger for younger members of the sibling dyad. Findings are discussed in light of recent theory on the sibling relationship and children's development. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A comparison of same- and cross-age interactions in mixed-age groups

This study investigated the types of interactions occurring within and between age groups in mixed-age preschool classes. Using point-time sampling procedures, the peer interactions of 30 3- to 5-year-old preschool children enrolled in two preschool classes were recorded. Interactions were coded according to six categories and according to the role of the target child in the interaction. Contrary to popular assumptions about interactions in mixed-age groups, results indicated that for both the older and younger children the types of interactions occurring across age groups did not differ significantly from interactions within same-age groups. Symmetrical rather than asymmetrical relationships across age groups were found in the exchange of nurturance, direction and information.     

Clinical depression and day-to-day social interaction in a community sample

Adult participants recruited from the community, one half of whom met criteria for clinical depression, described their day-to-day social interactions using a variant of the Rochester Interaction Record. Compared with the nondepressed participants, depressed participants found their interactions to be less enjoyable and less intimate, and they felt less influence over their interactions. Differences between the two groups in intimacy occurred only in interactions with close relations and not in interactions with nonintimates, and differences in influence were more pronounced for those who were cohabiting than for those who were not. There were no differences in how socially active depressed and nondepressed people were or in the amount of contact they had with different relational partners.     

The effects of polydrug use with and without cocaine on mother-infant interaction at 3 and 6 months

The face-to-face interactions of 43 polydrug-with-cocaine-using mothers and their infants at 3 and 6 months were compared to 17 non-cocaine-but other-drug-using mothers and 21 mothers who used no drugs during their pregnancy. Coders blind to mothers' drug use status scored 3 min of face-to-face interactions for 16 measures of maternal and infant interactive behaviors. A principal component of 7 behaviors formed a measure of maternal attentiveness; a principal component of 5 behaviors formed a measure of mother-infant dyadic organization; and a principal component of 4 behaviors formed a measure of infant readiness to interact. A measure of maternal interruption was computed as the mean standard score of 3 additional interruptive behaviors. At 3 and 6 months, polydrug-with-cocaine-using mothers were less attentive to interactions, and polydrug-with-cocaine-using mothers and their infants engaged in fewer dyadic interactions than either non-cocaine or non-drug-using mothers. Compared to 3 months, polydrug-with-cocaine-using mothers at 6 months were less attentive to interactions and more frequently interrupted interactions by looking away, redirecting the infant, or withdrawing, whereas non-cocaine-using and non-drug- using mothers showed no change or an improvement in attentiveness to interactions and a decrease in interruptions. No differences emerged in the interactive behaviors of the infants of polydrug- with-cocaine-using, non-cocaine-using, or non-drug-using mothers. Cocaine use represents a significant risk for diminished parental attentiveness and responsiveness to infants and for diminished interactiveness in infants.     

Improving same-sex and heterosocial interactions of emotionally disturbed adolescents

This study attempted to increase the occurrence of sexual-social interactions of emotionally disturbed adolescents. Two males' and two females' sexual-social interactions were analyzed within a special eduction classroom. An extension of a reversal design (baseline/individual) contingency and response cost/group contingency /individual contingency and response cost ) was used to assess treatment effects on same-sex and heterosocial interactions. In addition, the group contingency condition was staggered in a multiple baseline fachion across the two response classes. The results indicate that, regardless of sex, group contingencies are more effective than individual contingencies in increasing positive sexual-social interactions. More important, it was inferred from the results that emotionally disturbed adolescents' social interactions represent difficulties of performance rather than competence.     

Transferring Subcultural Knowledge On-Line: Practices and Beliefs of Persistent Digital Pirates

Criminal subcultures form around deviant behaviors as a consequence of persistent interactions with like-minded others who facilitate the transmission of norms, values, and belief. Although researchers have explored social interactions in the real world, few have considered how learning occurs through virtual interactions. We address the role of on-line interactions in spreading subcultural knowledge by interviewing 34 persistent digital pirates and performing a non-participant ethnography of an on-line forum devoted to piracy. Our results show that through on-line interactions, pirates learn the norms and values of digital piracy, including how to recognize and avoid risks associated with pirating and how to make sense of and justify their actions. They did not see themselves as members of a piracy subculture, however. These findings show that subcultural knowledge can be transmitted through on-line interactions, even when participants do not fully invest in the group.     

Sensory and perceptual interactions in weight perception

In four experiments, a multidimensional signal detection analysis was used to determine the influence of length, diameter, and mass on haptically perceived heaviness with and without vision. This analysis allowed us to test for sensory and perceptual interactions between mass and size. As in previous research, sensory interactions were apparent in all four experiments. A novel result was the appearance of perceptual interactions that became more prominent when diameter varied and when vision was allowed. Discussion focuses on how vision and the modalities of touch (i.e., haptic and dynamic) might influence which interactions appear in the data.     

Similarities and differences between western cultures: Toddler temperament and parent-child interactions in the United States (US) and Germany

Parents play a critical role in shaping social-emotional development, particularly in early childhood; however, children’s influence on their own development is equally important. Parent-child interactions, fundamental to secure attachment and social schemes, represent a critical area of social-emotional development subject to child effects associated with temperament. The present study explores these effects through a cross-cultural lens via comparisons of dyads from the United States (US) and Germany. Specifically, cross-cultural differences in toddler temperament were evaluated via the Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire (ECBQ; Putnam et al., 2006), with cross-cultural variability in parent-child interactions examined as well, along with differences in child temperament effects on the quality of these interactions. Ratings of temperament were generally similar between the two cultures; however, US toddlers were rated higher in attention shifting, whereas German children were rated higher on soothability and perceptual sensitivity. Additionally, dyadic interactions in the US were rated as more stimulating and demonstrating greater partner engagement than those in Germany. Differential contributions of temperament to interaction quality and complexity were also observed. Higher ratings of toddler discomfort and perceptual sensitivity predicted more stimulating interactions overall in the US but not Germany. In contrast, higher ratings of toddler low-intensity pleasure predicted more stimulating interactions in Germany but not the US. Overall, the present study identifies many similarities between US and German toddlers and supports theories describing children as active agents in shaping their own development, in what appears to be a different manner across cultures.     

Supportive and problematic social interactions: A social network analysis

Assessed the number of sources of supportive and problematic social interactions in the total social network as well as the number who were the sources of consistently supportive or problematic interactions in a sample of 2nd year medical students. Number of problematic interaction sources was hypothesized to be more predictive of psychological and physical well-being than number of supportive interaction sources. Results showed that total supportive and total problematic interaction sources were equally predictive of life satisfaction. The presence of at least one individual who is a consistent source of problematic interactions was most predictive of lower life satisfaction. Results indicate the importance of studying both supportive and problematic social interactions. They also suggest that interactions with individuals that are consistently problematic may negatively impact upon well-being.     

Thwarted Belongingness in Relation to Face‐to‐Face and Online Interactions

Suicide is ranked as the tenth leading cause of death for all ages in the United States (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012). Joiner's (2005) interpersonal theory of suicide stated thwarted belongingness—the feeling of being alienated from others—and perceived burdensomeness—the feeling of being a liability to others—are the primary proximal factors leading to suicidal desire. The current study focused on thwarted belongingness and examined its relationship to face‐to‐face interactions and online interactions in both an undergraduate and community sample. We hypothesized that negative face‐to‐face and online interactions would be independently associated with higher levels of thwarted belongingness. Furthermore, we hypothesized that face‐to‐face interactions would moderate the relationship between online interactions and thwarted belongingness and that online interactions would moderate the relationship between face‐to‐face interactions and thwarted belongingness. Three hundred eighty‐seven participants (79.6% female) at a southern university and 209 (62.7% male) participants recruited from Amazon's Mechanical Turk website completed an online survey. Results only partially supported hypotheses, with only face‐to‐face interactions shown to be independently related to higher levels of thwarted belongingness. These findings indicated that negative face‐to‐face interactions may contribute to higher levels of risk factors for suicide ideation and highlighted the importance of assessing for negative interactions across all contexts.     

Interactional patterns of bipolar patients and their spouses

This study examined the interactional patterns of eight bipolar patients (when manic and in remission) and their spouses by videotaping the couples' interactions and then quantifying those interactions using the Marital Interaction Coding system. These couples' interactions were compared to the interactions of eight happily and eight unhappily married nonbipolar psychiatric control patients and their spouses. The purposes were to determine (a) whether the interactional pattern between bipolar patients and their spouses changes or remains the same when the patient is in a manic vs. a nonmanic state and (b) how the interaction patterns of bipolar patients when manic and nonmanic compare to happily and unhappily married nonbipolar psychiatriccontrol patients. Significant differences in interactions were found between manic and nonmanic states, in addition to significant differences between these patients and the control groups. There were also expected differences between happily and unhappily married psychiatric control groups. Implications are discussed for marital therapy for manies that involves problemsolving and communication training.     

Marital satisfaction and family stress as predictors of classroom behaviors

The purpose of this research was to examine the relationship between parents' perceptions of marital satisfaction and family stress and their third grade children's classroom behavior. Twenty-one married couples completed questionnaires during home visits. Behavior observations were made from videotapes of children recorded in their classroom during lunch and group academic periods on each of three days. Frequencies of peer interactions, solitary behaviors, and teacher interactions were coded. Regression analyses showed that mothers' level of marital satisfaction (but not fathers') predicted their children's frequency of peer interactions during lunch. Fathers' level of perceived family stress (but not mothers') predicted their children's frequency of peer interactions during lunch. Neither measure for either parent was related to the frequency of peer interactions, solitary behaviors, or teacher interactions observed during the academic sessions. These findings highlight the importance of assessing the potential differential relation of parent variables to children's trans-situational behaviors, and the examination of these variables in relation to different social-environmental contexts in which children participate outside the home.     

The role of teachers' perceived control and children's characteristics in interactions between 6-year-olds and their teachers

The study aimed at an understanding of child-teacher interactions in school preparatory classrooms. Relations between observed interactions and sex of the child, teachers' ratings of their perceived control, and of children's undercontrolled and overcontrolled problem behaviors, social competence and work efficiency were studied. Thirty-six teachers and 92 six-year-olds, 39 girls and 53 boys, from 19 classrooms were directly observed on 2-5 occasions during a total mean of 60 minutes per child. The results showed that interactions involving teacher support behaviors were the most common, but comparatively less well explained by the predictors. Associations were found between perceived control and two types of teacher command interactions. For teacher commands initiated by child externalizing behavior, the relation with perceived control was shown to hold for boys only. Male sex and rated undercontrolled problems were predictive of more interactions initiated with externalizing behaviors and also of more restrictive teacher responses following child positive behaviors. Overcontrolled children, who had teachers high in perceived control, were more often met with support behavior when they were off-task. It was concluded that teacher perceptions of control and of child behaviors as well as sex of the child contribute to ongoing processes in preschool classrooms and that the chosen methodology could be used to further the search for factors affecting interactions in preschool settings.     

It's not only clients: Studying emotion work with clients and co‐workers with an event‐sampling approach

A group of 78 young employees in service and non‐service professions reported 848 task related interactions at work over 1 week using a variant of the Rochester Interaction Record which measured emotion work requirements, emotional dissonance, and deviance. Multi‐level analyses showed that dissonance was more likely in interactions with customers, whereas deviance, that is, the violation of display rules by acting out one's felt emotion, was more likely in co‐worker interactions. Well‐being in the interaction was lower (a) for interactions with emotion work requirements, (b) for dissonance, even after controlling for felt negative emotions, and (c) for deviance. Negative emotion displayed partially mediated the relationship between deviance and well‐being. Regarding the relationship of more stable job related attitudes, psychosomatic complaints, and aggregated scores of social interactions, fewer effects were found than in questionnaire studies, which may be due to the fact that only interactions that lasted at least 10 minutes were assessed, as is customary in research with this instrument. Among the effects found, however, many involved proportions rather than frequency of interactions, which raises the possibility of balancing and legitimizing effects of non‐stressful interactions.