风险容忍对飞行员驾驶安全行为的影响：风险知觉和危险态度的作用

采用问卷法调查了257名中国航线飞行教员、机长和副驾驶, 通过结构方程模型和层次回归分析探讨了风险容忍对飞行员驾驶安全行为的影响, 以及在这一影响过程中风险知觉和危险态度所发挥的作用。结果发现：(1)风险容忍对飞行员驾驶安全行为具有显著的负向影响, 高风险容忍飞行员的驾驶安全行为水平显著低于低风险容忍飞行员; (2)风险知觉在风险容忍对飞行员驾驶安全行为的影响过程中发挥了调节作用, 即高水平的风险知觉削弱了风险容忍对飞行员驾驶安全行为的负向影响。(3)危险态度在风险容忍对飞行员驾驶安全行为的影响过程中发挥了完全中介作用, 且这种中介作用的实现又受到风险知觉的调节, 即危险态度对飞行员驾驶安全行为的影响是有调节的中介效应。     

飞行员风险知觉：概念、测量及研究理论取向

风险知觉是飞行员进行正确风险管理的核心,对保证航空安全具有重要作用。本文首先对不同研究者对飞行员风险知觉的概念进行综述,又与传统的知觉和危险知觉进行了区分。其次,文章简明地介绍了飞行员风险知觉的测量方法,包括外显的主观评价法、飞行模拟器测验、内隐联想测验等方法,分析各种方法的内容与其优缺点。最后,本文分别从认知理论取向和组织文化理论取向两个方面来探讨飞行员风险知觉的研究,并针对两种理论取向,提出相应的未来研究方向。     

飞行员情景意识的影响因素剖析:基于Endsley的三级理论

近年来,航空业的高速发展也带来了事故频发。情景意识(situation awareness,SA)作为保障飞行安全的基础,包含飞行员对当前情景状态信息的获取、加工及对未来的预测。该过程涉及多认知加工过程的共同作用,受多因素影响。本文综合了飞行环境、机舱设计等外部因素,飞行员生理及认知能力等个体因素,分别从知觉、理解、预测三个层次探讨各因子对SA的影响及原因。对SA影响因素的现有研究做了初步总结,同时为进一步完善SA影响因素模型做理论铺垫并提供方向。     

驾驶员为何对道路关键事件“视而不见”?——“自下而上”和“自上而下”加工机制的交互作用

驾驶员“视而不见”错误是指驾驶员的视线虽然指向道路上的危险目标, 却没有知觉到其存在, 对交通安全构成威胁。本文首先在注意计算框架内, 分别从“自下而上”和“自上而下”两种加工机制探讨诱发驾驶员“视而不见”错误的主要因素, 该框架解释力不足的原因在于没有充分考虑实践经验和动机对驾驶员预期和注意定势的影响。由此提出注意计算框架扩展模型, 通过“自下而上”和“自上而下”的交互作用机制对驾驶员“视而不见”错误提出综合解释。     

影响驾驶安全的驾驶员危险知觉研究述评

危险知觉是指驾驶员对交通情境中的潜在危险进行识别并做出反应的一种能力。目前,驾驶员危险知觉测量主要使用反应时、眼动或主观评定三种测量方法。在测量中,这三种方法各有优缺点,并出现相互结合的研究趋势。为了提高我国交通安全性,结合国外在提高驾驶员危险预期能力和改善视觉搜索模式两个方面的应用研究,未来国内研究可以在探索危险知觉的认知加工特点、影响因素及加快测量技术的商品化应用等方面加以深入。     

飞行空间定向障碍

飞行空间定向障碍,是指飞行员在飞行中失去了对飞机和自身的正确知觉而发生的各种错觉。飞行空间定向障碍大体上可分为三种类型——飞行错觉、脱离感觉和空间失定向。这三种类型中,以飞行错觉最为常见。据国外有关报道和国内的调查,几乎100％的飞行员都发生过飞行错觉。特别是在夜间、复杂气象和海上飞行中,产生飞行错觉的现象更为普遍。     

飞行空间定向障碍

飞行空间定向障碍是指飞行员在飞行中空间定向的能力发生了障碍,表现为飞行员对自己的飞机或与其他飞机的位置、运动或状态的错误知觉;或不能辨别自己飞机的状态和位置。据报导,几乎所有的飞行人员存其飞行生活中不同程度地体验过。绝大多数人产生定向障碍是一种正常的生理心理现象,极少数人则可能是某种疾病的早期症状之一。飞行空间定向障碍包括三种形式:飞行错觉、脱离现象(分离性感觉)和空中失定     

驾驶员危险知觉训练研究述评

危险知觉是指驾驶员预测前方道路危险情况的能力,即对某个具体的危险做出反应的快慢。驾驶员的危险知觉能力是影响驾驶安全的重要因素,因此,对危险知觉进行训练就显得尤为重要。文章主要介绍了基于驾驶模拟器和基于电脑两方面的危险知觉训练方式。详细介绍了训练方式的定义、机制以及具体实施过程,并指出了未来的研究方向。     

驾驶经验和危险类型对年轻驾驶员危险知觉的影响

结合反应时和眼动测量方法,采用驾驶经验分组2（年轻新手驾驶员,年轻有经验驾驶员）× 危险类型2（明显危险,隐藏危险）的混合实验设计,探索年轻驾驶员危险知觉的经验优势是否随着危险类型的不同而变化。使用一个基于真实交通情境视频的驾驶员危险知觉任务,对27名年轻新手驾驶员和22名年轻有经验驾驶员进行测试,并使用Tobbi T120记录眼动数据。结果发现,总体上,年轻新手驾驶员对潜在道路危险的反应次数比年轻有经验驾驶员更少,反应时间也更慢。两组驾驶员反应时间的差异,随着危险类型的不同而来源于不同的加工阶段。具体来说：一方面,年轻新手驾驶员对明显危险的反应时间慢,是因为他们对该类危险的评估时间长。另一方面,年轻新手驾驶员对隐藏危险的反应时间慢,是因为他们对该类危险的识别时间长。两组驾驶员对危险的平均注视时间受测试中危险类型的影响但不受驾驶经验的影响。这些研究结果表明,在对年轻新手驾驶员进行危险知觉训练或测试时,应重视危险类型对他们危险知觉的影响。     

驾驶经验和危险类型对年轻驾驶员危险知觉的影响（英文）

结合反应时和眼动测量方法,采用驾驶经验分组2(年轻新手驾驶员,年轻有经验驾驶员)×危险类型2(明显危险,隐藏危险)的混合实验设计,探索年轻驾驶员危险知觉的经验优势是否随着危险类型的不同而变化。使用一个基于真实交通情境视频的驾驶员危险知觉任务,对27名年轻新手驾驶员和22名年轻有经验驾驶员进行测试,并使用Tobbi T120记录眼动数据。结果发现,总体上,年轻新手驾驶员对潜在道路危险的反应次数比年轻有经验驾驶员更少,反应时间也更慢。两组驾驶员反应时间的差异,随着危险类型的不同而来源于不同的加工阶段。具体来说:一方面,年轻新手驾驶员对明显危险的反应时间慢,是因为他们对该类危险的评估时间长。另一方面,年轻新手驾驶员对隐藏危险的反应时间慢,是因为他们对该类危险的识别时间长。两组驾驶员对危险的平均注视时间受测试中危险类型的影响但不受驾驶经验的影响。这些研究结果表明,在对年轻新手驾驶员进行危险知觉训练或测试时,应重视危险类型对他们危险知觉的影响。.     

影响直升机飞行员飞入IMC的心理因素——一项基于三十年间NTSB事故报告的研究

气象因素对通航运行安全有重要影响,以此可以明确“直升机飞行员飞入仪表气象条件将会威胁飞行安全”这一基本事实。然而从近30年来美国国家运输安全委员会所记录的200起在仪表气象条件下的直升机事故来看,有近一半的飞行员有意地飞入仪表气象条件。这驱使研究者探究这一行为背后的心理因素。基于大量的文献,总结出飞行员的知识/经验、决策动机、情景评估、风险管理、认知偏差和社会压力能够合理地解释这一行为。     

Age and airline accidents

The issuance of a commercial pilot's license is contingent upon the fulfillment of stated minimum flight time. These requirements imply that total flight time and aircraft flight time can be equated with safety. For this reason, aircraft accidents involving licensed, professional pilots become difficult to explain. This study examined the relationship of pilot experience to accidents by comparing pilots' age and experience in 188 accidents involving corporate/executive pilots. The more severe accidents were expected to involve younger, less experienced pilots. The data in this study, however, refute this expectation. The age, aircraft time, or total time difference between groups was not significant. More research, both in the field and under controlled conditions, may bring in the psychological concept of cognitive dissonance.     

Vigilance decrement during a simulated general aviation flight

This study examined pilots' vigilance during an extended general aviation flight as measured by their capacity to exercise control over the aircraft during a planned flight. Thirty‐one qualified pilots flew a flight simulator from Wagga Wagga to Bankstown, Sydney, a distance of 207 nautical miles. The flight comprised five separate legs, although three legs were subjected to analysis. On the basis of attentional resource theory, it was hypothesised that task performance would differ based on the requirement for memory retrieval. Consistent with the hypothesis, the results revealed a deterioration in those tasks for which there was a substantial requirement for memory retrieval. Further analysis revealed that the deterioration in performance was best predicted by pilots' perception of the workload associated with the flight and their perception of their ability to exercise control over aircraft during normal conditions. The implications are discussed in terms of system design and training. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Narcissistic personality and risk perception among Chinese aviators: The mediating role of promotion focus

Optimism bias is a crucial feature of risk perception that leads to increased risk‐taking behaviour, which is a particularly salient issue among pilots in aviation settings due to the high‐stakes nature of flight. The current study sought to address the roles of narcissism and promotion focus on optimism bias in risk perception in aviation context. Participants were 239 male flight cadets from the Civil Aviation Flight University of China who completed the Narcissistic Personality Inventory‐13, the Work Regulatory Focus Scale, and an indirect measure of unrealistic optimism in risk perception, which measured risk perception for the individual and the risk assumed by other individuals performing the same task. Higher narcissism increased the likelihood of underestimating personal risks, an effect that was mediated by high promotion focus motivation, such that high narcissism led to high promotion focus motivation. The findings have important implications for improving the accuracy of risk perception in aviation risks among aviators.     

Cognitive aging and flight performances in general aviation pilots

Unlike professional pilots who are limited by the FAA's age rule, no age limit is defined in general aviation. Our overall goal was to examine how age-related cognitive decline impacts piloting performance and weather-related decision-making. This study relied on three components: cognitive assessment (in particular executive functioning), pilot characteristics (age and flight experience), and flight performance. The results suggest that in comparison to chronological age, cognitive assessment is a better criterion to predict the flight performance, in particular because of the inter-individual variability of aging impact on cognitive abilities and the beneficial effect of flight experience.     

Assessing the influence of operational factors on the perceived structure of real-world scenes viewed during low-altitude, high-speed flight

Previous research indicates that pilots of most jet-fighter aircraft attend to similar elements of the natural flight environment when flying at low altitudes. However, some evidence suggests that differences may exist for pilots of certain specific types of aircraft. The present experiment examined the influence of operational factors on the perceived structure of real-world scenes viewed during low-altitude flight. Multidimensional scaling analyses with stimuli consisting of videotape segments of low-altitude flight over a variety of real-world terrains revealed differences in perceived environmental structure for pilots assigned to different types of jet-fighter aircraft. These results provide evidence that perceptual learning evolves differently under different operational conditions and suggests that training programs should be designed to reflect those differences.     

Autogenic Feedback Training Exercise and pilot performance: enhanced functioning under search-and-rescue flying conditions

Studies have shown that autonomous mode behavior is one cause of aircraft fatalities due to pilot error. In such cases, the pilot is in a high state of psychological and physiological arousal and tends to focus on one problem, while ignoring more critical information. This study examined the effect of training in physiological self-recognition and regulation, as a means of improving crew cockpit performance. Seventeen pilots were assigned to the treatment and control groups matched for accumulated flight hours. The treatment group contained 4 pilots from HC-130 Hercules aircraft and 4 HH-65 Dolphin helicopter pilots; the control group contained 3 pilots of HC-130s and 6 helicopter pilots. During an initial flight, physiological data were recorded on each crewmember and an instructor pilot rated individual crew performance. Eight crewmembers were then taught to regulate their own physiological response levels using Autogenic-Feedback Training Exercise (AFTE). The remaining participants received no training. During a second flight, treatment participants showed significant improvement in performance (rated by the same instructor pilot as in pretests) while controls did not improve. The results indicate that AFTE management of high states of physiological arousal may improve pilot performance during emergency flying conditions.     

Cognitive aging and flight performances in general aviation pilots

ABSTRACT

Unlike professional pilots who are limited by the FAA's age rule, no age limit is defined in general aviation. Our overall goal was to examine how age-related cognitive decline impacts piloting performance and weather-related decision-making. This study relied on three components: cognitive assessment (in particular executive functioning), pilot characteristics (age and flight experience), and flight performance. The results suggest that in comparison to chronological age, cognitive assessment is a better criterion to predict the flight performance, in particular because of the inter-individual variability of aging impact on cognitive abilities and the beneficial effect of flight experience.     

Understanding the past: Investigating the role of availability,outcome, and hindsight bias and close calls in visual pilots' weather‐related decision making

Past events, such as “close calls,” can provide valuable learning opportunities, especially in aviation, where learning from past errors could potentially help to avoid future incidents or accidents. This study investigated whether three cognitive biases (availability, outcome, and hindsight bias) could influence pilots' perceptions of past events, which in turn might influence their perception of events yet to occur. Study 1 found that pilots were influenced by the outcome of a flight when judging decision quality. Of particular interest was that pilots interpreted events that led to a close call very similarly to those that had positive outcomes, which may reinforce risky behaviour. However, although adequately powered, Study 1 found no evidence of availability bias: Exposure to one of four outcomes did not appear to influence later decisions. Study 2 found that having read a flight report, particularly if it ended in a crash, pilots consistently overestimated their likelihood of predicting the actual outcome, which may reduce any opportunity to learn. These findings suggest that two of the three cognitive biases explored in this study could influence a pilot's perception of past events in ways that may adversely affect how they make future decisions that in turn may affect flight safety.