对称场景中朝向一致性对内在参照系的影响

采用部分场景再认范式研究了对称场景中物体朝向的一致性对内在参照系建立的影响。被试在实验1中沿对称轴方向学习无朝向物体组成的场景; 实验2中沿对称轴方向学习有朝向物体组成的场景; 实验3中沿对称轴与物体朝向方向学习与实验2相同的场景。结果表明：(1)物体朝向一致性影响了对称场景中内在参照方向的选择; (2)无论是否存在观察视点的干扰, 观察者选择对称轴和物体的一致朝向作为内在参照方向的可能性没有显著差异。     

空间场景表征中的参照系选取

被试在矩形房间中从两个不同的观察点学习物体场景并在多个朝向上对物体形成的空间关系进行判断,通过控制场景中物体主要内在轴相对于环境结构（房间和地毯）的方向和被试的学习顺序,探讨被试在场景空间表征中采用何种参照系和参照系选取时的影响因素。两个实验结果发现：（1）内在参照系（intrinsic reference systems）和环境参照系均可以用于物体场景的表征,两类参照系之间的关系却是影响被试物体场景表征时参照系选取的重要因素,即当内在参照系与环境参照系方向一致时,被试无论从哪个朝向学习,都选择从垂直于内在参照系和环境参照系的朝向进行表征。反之,当二者方向不一致时,表征时参照系的选择取决于被试的学习经历;（2）无论内在参照系与环境参照系方向是否一致,物体场景本身内在结构的规则性都能够促进空间记忆,即内在结构的规则性既有助于准确编码物体的相对位置,也有助于提高空间关系判断的准确性。     

多视点学习条件下空间表征的朝向特异性

让被试在没有外界参照线索的条件下,从三个观察视点学习物体场景,首次以局部场景再认范式探讨了空间记忆中场景表征的朝向特异性。结果表明：（1）多视点学习条件下,场景空间表征依然是依赖于特定朝向的,不支持空间表征独立于朝向和空间表征依赖于多个观察朝向的观点。（2）场景空间表征的朝向依赖性不仅表现于方位判断任务,也同样表现于场景再认任务。（3）场景本身的内在结构对空间表征中参照系的选取有重要影响。     

空间参照系建立的时间特征*

通过2个实验来探讨空间记忆参照系建立的时间特征。被试学习一个由7个物体组成的场景,场景中的物体以随机的方式序列呈现。一个能够标明物体位置且具有对称结构的场景分别在被试进行物体位置学习之前或之后呈现。研究结果发现:当被试在学习物体位置之前短暂呈现场景结构,场景结构能够决定空间参照系的建立;但被试学习物体位置之后再短暂呈现场景结构,场景结构不能决定空间参照系的建立。以上结果表明:空间参照系是在学习物体位置之前建立,并且建立之后不能被改变。     

物体相似性对空间表征的影响：来自眼动的证据

以三维场景图片为实验材料,采用眼动追踪技术,通过两个实验考察了对称场景中物体相似性对空间表征的影响。结果表明：（1）无相似物体条件下,场景本身的内在结构对空间表征有重要影响,对称轴方向可以作为空间表征参照方向;（2）存在部分相似物体条件下,物体的相似性会影响空间表征参照方向的选择,并且相似物体方向也是空间表征的参照方向之一。     

对想象环境的空间更新

学界传统上将空间更新定义为个体随着身体运动对其所处真实环境空间表征的自动更新过程, 然而近年来有研究发现个体还可以对想象环境进行空间更新, 但其机制尚不明确。本研究实验1被试站在场景内学习物体空间位置之后, 保持学习朝向直线走到测试位置。其中, 0度组保持学习朝向站立, 180度组原地转动180度, 面对学习朝向的相反方向站立。两组被试均想象自己仍然站在学习位置, 面对学习朝向。然后被试旋转90度, 从3个想象朝向(记忆一致朝向、感觉运动一致朝向和不一致朝向)完成空间判断任务。结果发现0度组记忆一致朝向和感觉运动一致朝向成绩均优于不一致朝向, 而180度组无此优势。实验2被试从学习空间移动到测试空间过程中被迷向, 其他条件与实验1的180度组相同。但是, 实验2被试在记忆一致朝向和感觉运动一致朝向的成绩均优于不一致朝向。结果证明人们可以通过对在线空间表征进行想象平移或将离线记忆与空间更新系统相联结两种方式, 对想象环境进行空间更新。     

幼儿在地图任务中对自我位置与自我朝向的结合

使用地图-空间和空间-地图两种地图定向任务,设置需同时表征自我位置和自我朝向的任务情境,探讨了5~6岁幼儿在地图使用中结合自我位置和自我朝向表征的能力。结果发现:(1)位置选择和朝向选择同时正确的比率显著高于概率水平;(2)被试在位置选择上的准确性显著高于朝向选择;(3)位置表征与朝向表征之间的关系在不同任务条件下表现出一定的差异。这些结果说明,5~6岁幼儿在使用地图时已经能够同时关注空间位置与朝向,实现位置表征与朝向表征的结合。     

参照系冲突对表象更新的影响

以三维场景图片为学习材料,通过系统操纵参照系之间的冲突,在四个实验中考察了两种不同表象更新任务的参照系冲突效应。结果发现：（1）参照系冲突对以自我为中心的表象更新有显著影响,但对以场景为中心的表象更新影响相对较小,从而导致以自我为中心表象更新相对于以场景为中心的表象更新的优势效应减小直至消失。（2）旋转者身体倾斜与场景倾斜引发的参照系冲突效应具有不对等性：由于整个场景倾斜引发的参照系冲突效应大于由于旋转者身体倾斜引发的参照系冲突效应。（3）与场景同时倾斜的局部空间参照系降低了以场景为中心表象更新任务的参照系冲突效应,但对以自我为中心表象更新任务的参照系冲突效应没有影响。这些结果表明两种表象更新任务具有不同的认知加工机制,并进一步扩展了Presson等提出的空间更新参照系冲突模型     

参照系冲突条件下心理旋转的角色效应

以实物场景为学习材料,探索实际的自我参照系与想象自我或他人的参照系冲突对角色效应的影响。结果发现:(1)进行旋转之前参照系冲突存在与否,均产生了心理旋转的角色效应。(2)通过操纵两种不同方式的参照系冲突,均导致心理旋转的角色效应显著下降。(3)两种不同的参照系冲突对心理旋转角色效应的影响不同。这些结果表明参照系冲突可能是影响心理旋转角色效应的一个主要因素,并进一步扩展了Presson等提出的空间参照系冲突模型。     

视觉工作记忆中的子系统

由于在预实验中发现记忆复合物体(multi—feature objects)时存在子系统优势,在本实验中,研究了记忆单特征物体(single—feature objects)时,是否存在子系统优势。被试为中国科学技术大学学生17人。要求被试记忆同样数目的单特征物体,条件1下物体属性相同,条件2下物体分属两种属性。通过正确率分析,条件2的成绩好于条件1。这个结果表明：单特征物体记忆时存在子系统优势。     

Anticipation in Real‐World Scenes: The Role of Visual Context and Visual Memory

The human sentence processor is able to make rapid predictions about upcoming linguistic input. For example, upon hearing the verb eat, anticipatory eye‐movements are launched toward edible objects in a visual scene (Altmann & Kamide, 1999). However, the cognitive mechanisms that underlie anticipation remain to be elucidated in ecologically valid contexts. Previous research has, in fact, mainly used clip‐art scenes and object arrays, raising the possibility that anticipatory eye‐movements are limited to displays containing a small number of objects in a visually impoverished context. In Experiment 1, we confirm that anticipation effects occur in real‐world scenes and investigate the mechanisms that underlie such anticipation. In particular, we demonstrate that real‐world scenes provide contextual information that anticipation can draw on: When the target object is not present in the scene, participants infer and fixate regions that are contextually appropriate (e.g., a table upon hearing eat). Experiment 2 investigates whether such contextual inference requires the co‐presence of the scene, or whether memory representations can be utilized instead. The same real‐world scenes as in Experiment 1 are presented to participants, but the scene disappears before the sentence is heard. We find that anticipation occurs even when the screen is blank, including when contextual inference is required. We conclude that anticipatory language processing is able to draw upon global scene representations (such as scene type) to make contextual inferences. These findings are compatible with theories assuming contextual guidance, but posit a challenge for theories assuming object‐based visual indices.     

Discourse-mediation of the mapping between language and the visual world: Eye movements and mental representation

Two experiments explored the mapping between language and mental representations of visual scenes. In both experiments, participants viewed, for example, a scene depicting a woman, a wine glass and bottle on the floor, an empty table, and various other objects. In Experiment 1, participants concurrently heard either ‘The woman will put the glass on the table’ or ‘The woman is too lazy to put the glass on the table’. Subsequently, with the scene unchanged, participants heard that the woman ‘will pick up the bottle, and pour the wine carefully into the glass.’ Experiment 2 was identical except that the scene was removed before the onset of the spoken language. In both cases, eye movements after ‘pour’ (anticipating the glass) and at ‘glass’ reflected the language-determined position of the glass, as either on the floor, or moved onto the table, even though the concurrent (Experiment 1) or prior (Experiment 2) scene showed the glass in its unmoved position on the floor. Language-mediated eye movements thus reflect the real-time mapping of language onto dynamically updateable event-based representations of concurrently or previously seen objects (and their locations).     

Memory for scenes: Refixations reflect retrieval

Most conceptions of episodic memory hold that reinstatement of encoding operations is essential for retrieval success, but the specific mechanisms of retrieval reinstatement are not well understood. In three experiments, we used saccadic eye movements as a window for examining reinstatement in scene recognition. In Experiment 1, participants viewed complex scenes, while number of study fixations was controlled by using a gaze-contingent paradigm. In Experiment 2, effects of stimulus saliency were minimized by directing participants' eye movements during study. At test, participants made remember/know judgments for each recognized stimulus scene. Both experiments showed that remember responses were associated with more consistent study-test fixations than false rejections (Experiments 1 and 2) and know responses (Experiment 2). In Experiment 3, we examined the causal role of gaze consistency on retrieval by manipulating participants' expectations during recognition. After studying name and scene pairs, each test scene was preceded by the same or different name as during study. Participants made more consistent eye movements following a matching, rather than mismatching, scene name. Taken together, these findings suggest that explicit recollection is a function of perceptual reconstruction and that event memory influences gaze control in this active reconstruction process.     

Direct control of fixation times in scene viewing: Evidence from analysis of the distribution of first fixation duration

Participants' eye movements were monitored in two scene viewing experiments that manipulated the task-relevance of scene stimuli and their availability for extrafoveal processing. In both experiments, participants viewed arrays containing eight scenes drawn from two categories. The arrays of scenes were either viewed freely (Free Viewing) or in a gaze-contingent viewing mode where extrafoveal preview of the scenes was restricted (No Preview). In Experiment 1a, participants memorized the scenes from one category that was designated as relevant, and in Experiment 1b, participants chose their preferred scene from within the relevant category. We examined first fixations on scenes from the relevant category compared to the irrelevant category (Experiments 1a and 1b), and those on the chosen scene compared to other scenes not chosen within the relevant category (Experiment 1b). A survival analysis was used to estimate the first discernible influence of the task-relevance on the distribution of first-fixation durations. In the free viewing condition in Experiment 1a, the influence of task relevance occurred as early as 81 ms from the start of fixation. In contrast, the corresponding value in the no preview condition was 254 ms, demonstrating the crucial role of extrafoveal processing in enabling direct control of fixation durations in scene viewing. First fixation durations were also influenced by whether or not the scene was eventually chosen (Experiment 1b), but this effect occurred later and affected fewer fixations than the effect of scene category, indicating that the time course of scene processing is an important variable mediating direct control of fixation durations.     

靶刺激变换与情景信息属性对真实情景再认的影响

采用眼动研究范式,通过两个实验考察靶刺激变换与情景信息属性对情景再认的影响。实验一结果显示,靶刺激变换对情景再认、靶刺激所属兴趣区的凝视时间均有显著影响,这表明在情景再认过程中,观察者会有意识地搜索靶刺激,靶刺激具有诊断效应;实验二应用了知觉信息与语义信息重合和分离两种情景材料。结果显示,观察者对语义信息的首次注视次数显著多于知觉信息;观察者对知觉信息和语义信息分离条件下语义信息的首次注视时间显著长于重合条件下。这一结果提示,在情景识别过程中,语义信息具有注意优先性,但其优先性会受到知觉信息启动的干扰。     

Content,not context,facilitates memory for real-world scenes

ABSTRACT

Can eye movements tell us whether people will remember a scene? In order to investigate the link between eye movements and memory encoding and retrieval, we asked participants to study photographs of real-world scenes while their eye movements were being tracked. We found eye gaze patterns during study to be predictive of subsequent memory for scenes. Moreover, gaze patterns during study were more similar to gaze patterns during test for remembered than for forgotten scenes. Thus, eye movements are indeed indicative of scene memory. In an explicit test for context effects of eye movements on memory, we found recognition rate to be unaffected by the disruption of spatial and/or temporal context of repeated eye movements. Therefore, we conclude that eye movements cue memory by selecting and accessing the most relevant scene content, regardless of its spatial location within the scene or the order in which it was selected.     

客体及其位置记忆的眼动研究(中文)

In this paper we briefly describe preliminary data from two experiments that we have carried out to investigate the relationship between visual encoding and memory for objects and their locations within scenes. In these experiments, we recorded participants′ eye movements as they viewed a photograph of a cubicle with 12 objects positioned pseudo-randomly on a desk and shelves. After viewing the photograph, participants were taken to the actual cubicle where they undertook two memory tests. Participants were asked to identify the 12 target objects(from the photograph)presented amongst 12 distractors. They were then required to place each of the objects in the location that they occupied in the photograph. These tests assessed participants′ memory for identity of the objects and their locations. In Experiment 1, we assessed the influence of the encoding period and the test delay on object identity and location memory. In Experiment 2 we manipulated scanning behaviour during encoding by "boxing"some of the objects in the photo. We showed that using boxes to change eye movement behaviour during encoding directly affected the nature of memory for the scene. The results of these studies indicate a fundamental relationship between visual encoding and memory for objects and their locations. We explain our findings in terms of the Visual Memory Model(Hollingworth & Henderson, 2002).     

Gaze cues influence the allocation of attention in natural scene viewing

In two experiments we examined whether the allocation of attention in natural scene viewing is influenced by the gaze cues (head and eye direction) of an individual appearing in the scene. Each experiment employed a variant of the flicker paradigm in which alternating versions of a scene and a modified version of that scene were separated by a brief blank field. In Experiment 1, participants were able to detect the change made to the scene sooner when an individual appearing in the scene was gazing at the changing object than when the individual was absent, gazing straight ahead, or gazing at a nonchanging object. In addition, participants' ability to detect change deteriorated linearly as the changing object was located progressively further from the line of regard of the gazer. Experiment 2 replicated this change detection advantage of gaze-cued objects in a modified procedure using more critical scenes, a forced-choice change/no-change decision, and accuracy as the dependent variable. These findings establish that in the perception of static natural scenes and in a change detection task, attention is preferentially allocated to objects that are the target of another's social attention.