创伤后应激障碍的双重表征理论及其检验

创伤后应激障碍的双重表征理论(dual representation theory of PTSD,DRT)基于多重记忆系统的观点,强调特定加工通路(即视觉加工腹侧通路和背侧通路)在侵入性表象形成和提取中的作用。DRT认为,两类不同性质的竞争性认知任务(即言语任务和视觉空间任务)分别占用特定加工通路的认知资源从而影响创伤信息加工和创伤记忆再巩固;工作记忆模型(working memory model,WMM)则强调竞争性认知任务对整体认知资源的占用。目前,DRT和WMM均得到了一些研究的支持。未来的研究应考虑个体的工作记忆能力;开展更多干预研究,并尝试改进研究方法,以及设计与文化相符、更加生活化的竞争性认知任务。此外,在加强模拟干预研究的同时也要增加临床应用研究,适当开展真实创伤情境的干预研究,还要加强相关信息加工能力训练的研究。     

统计认知理论及应用研究

长期以来大家认为人类认知尽管可以看成是非确定的推理计算过程,但它的知识表达、模型结构、及计算方法和概率统计理论在本质上是不同的,因此认知科学和概率统计方法存在巨大的鸿沟,过去两者基本上独立发展。近年来随着Bayesian概率统计模型研究的一系列突破性工作和认知过程本质的不断被发现和挖掘,两者的相关性和互补性逐渐突显出来。许多研究者认为认知是近似遵循概率统计推理原则的,一些研究工作显示两者的结合有可能对人工智能发展产生深远的影响。本文对当前统计认知理论及应用研究的现状进行系统的梳理,并结合自身的研究对它今后的发展提出自己的看法。     

认知控制在工作记忆表征引导注意中的作用:来自眼动的证据

研究同时采用首次注视点百分率与行为反应时指标,探讨了认知控制在无关工作记忆表征引导视觉注意选择过程中的作用。实验1发现:当视觉搜索容易时,首次注视点百分率和反应时指标都出现了注意引导效应;而当视觉搜索困难时,在反映早期注意定向的首次注视点百分率指标上,搜索快的被试组的注意引导效应显著大于搜索慢的被试组,而在行为反应时指标上,搜索快的被试组表现出注意引导效应,但搜索慢的被试组则表现出相反的注意拒绝效应。实验2发现当采用更为突显的靶子刺激时,首次注视点百分率指标上表现出的注意引导效应并未受到视觉搜索靶子显著性的影响,甚至还表现出一定的优先性。这些结果表明认知控制在工作记忆表征引导视觉注意的过程中所起的作用是动态变化的,视觉搜索早期注意定向阶段的注意引导效应比较稳健,认知控制只能减弱其效应的量值,而在随后的视觉搜索过程中,当视觉搜索比较缓慢时,认知控制可能会将注意引导效应反转为相反的注意拒绝效应。     

Adaptation in conflict: are conflict-triggered control adjustments protected in the presence of motivational distractors?

Solving a conflict between two response options in an interference task has been found to increase control in a subsequent conflict situation. The present research examined whether such conflict adaptation persists in the presence of distractors that have motivational relevance and are therefore competing for attentional resources (i.e. they signal opportunities for monetary gains or losses contingent on overall task performance). In an adjusted flanker task, motivational (versus neutral versus no) distractors were presented together with the current trial while the previous trial never included any distractor. Accumulated evidence across three studies showed that motivational distractors reduced the conflict adaptation effect. This was found irrespective of the location at which the distractor occurred (Study 1), and independent of its valence (i.e. reward or loss, Study 2). Study 3 and a merged data analysis ruled out low-level alternative explanations. In line with a dual competition account (Pessoa, L. (2009). How do emotion and motivation direct executive control? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13(4), 160–166. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2009.01.006), our results show that conflict adaptation is not fully protected in the presence of motivational distractors. We discuss whether this should be interpreted as a limitation, or as reflecting the flexibility of the control system in dealing with motivationally relevant information.     

Searching for two categories of target in dynamic visual displays impairs monitoring ability

Target onsets in dynamically changing displays can be predicted when contingencies exist between different stimulus states over time. In the present study, we examined predictive monitoring when participants searched dynamically changing displays of numbers and colored squares for a color target, a number target, or both. Stimuli were presented in both contiguous and discrete spatial configurations. Response time (RT) and accuracy were recorded, and evidence of predictive monitoring was assessed via first fixations and refixations of target‐predictive stimuli. RTs to target onsets and evidence of predictive monitoring were reduced in dual‐target, relative to single‐target, conditions. Further, predictive monitoring did not speed RTs but was influenced by display configuration. In particular, discrete displays impaired monitoring for number targets in the dual‐target condition. Implications exist for real‐world visual tasks involving multiple target categories and for visual display design.     

An INAR(1) negative multinomial regression model for longitudinal count data

This paper discusses a regression model for the analysis of longitudinal count data observed in a panel study. An integer-valued first-order autoregressive [INAR(1)] Poisson process is adapted to represent time-dependent correlations among the counts. By combining the INAR(1)-representation with a random effects approach, a new negative multinomial distribution is derived that includes the bivariate negative binomial distribution proposed by Edwards and Gurland (1961) and Subrahmaniam (1966) as a special case. A detailed analysis of the relationship between personality factors and daily emotion experiences illustrates the approach.This research was partially supported by NSF grant SBR-9409531. The author is grateful to Ulrich Schimmack and Ed Diener for providing the data set used in the application section and for helpful comments on this research.     

Regression Mixture Models: Does Modeling the Covariance Between Independent Variables and Latent Classes Improve the Results?

Regression mixture models are increasingly used as an exploratory approach to identify heterogeneity in the effects of a predictor on an outcome. In this simulation study, we tested the effects of violating an implicit assumption often made in these models; that is, independent variables in the model are not directly related to latent classes. Results indicate that the major risk of failing to model the relationship between predictor and latent class was an increase in the probability of selecting additional latent classes and biased class proportions. In addition, we tested whether regression mixture models can detect a piecewise relationship between a predictor and outcome. Results suggest that these models are able to detect piecewise relations but only when the relationship between the latent class and the predictor is included in model estimation. We illustrate the implications of making this assumption through a reanalysis of applied data examining heterogeneity in the effects of family resources on academic achievement. We compare previous results (which assumed no relation between independent variables and latent class) to the model where this assumption is lifted. Implications and analytic suggestions for conducting regression mixture based on these findings are noted.     

降低决策冲动性的方法及其神经机制

大量实验研究显示, 成瘾患者、多动症患者和病态赌博者在决策中表现出冲动偏好。目前研究冲动性决策偏好的经典实验范式是延迟折扣任务。通过延迟折扣任务, 心理学家揭示了冲动性决策偏好的神经机制并构建了多种理论, 包括单一系统评价理论、双系统评价理论、自我控制理论和自我参照加工理论。基于这些理论, 已经发展出了多种降低决策冲动性的方法, 包括想象未来具体事件、工作记忆训练、预先承诺以及提高血液中葡萄糖水平, 其背后的神经机制是通过认知控制和价值表征理论来实现的。未来研究方向需集中于价值计算、价值系统和多体素模式分析(MVPA)在改善决策冲动性以及内在机制研究上的应用。     

多阶段混合增长模型的方法及研究现状

多阶段混合增长模型(PGMM)可对发展过程中的阶段性及群体异质性特征进行分析,在能力发展、行为发展及干预、临床心理等研究领域应用广泛。PGMM可在结构方程模型和随机系数模型框架下定义,通常使用基于EM算法的极大似然估计和基于马尔科夫链蒙特卡洛模拟的贝叶斯推断两种方法进行参数估计。样本量、测量时间点数、潜在类别距离等因素对模型及参数估计有显著影响。未来应加强PGMM与其它增长模型的比较研究;在相同或不同的模型框架下研究数据特征、类别属性等对参数估计方法的影响。     

Latent change classes in dichotomous data

Changes in dichotomous data caused by treatments can be analyzed by means of the so-called linear logistic model with relaxed assumptions (LLRA). The LLRA does not require observable criteria representing a single underlying latent trait, but it postulates the generalizability of the treatment effects over criteria and subjects. To test this latter crucial assumption, the mixture LLRA was proposed that allows directly unobservable types of subjects to have different treatment effects. As the earlier methods for estimating the parameters of the mixture LLRA have specific drawbacks, a further method based on the conditional maximum likelihood principle will be presented here. In contrast to the earlier conditional methods, it uses all of the dichotomous change data while having fewer parameters. Further, its goodness-of-fit tests become more sensitive to a falsely specified number of change-types even though the treatment effects are biased. For typically occurring small to moderate sample sizes, however, parametric bootstrapping of the distributions of the fit statistics is recommended for performing hypotheses tests. Finally, three applications of the new method to empirical data are described: first, about the effect of the so-called Trager psychophysical integration, second, about the effect of autogenic therapy on patients with psychosomatic symptoms, and, third, about the effect of religious education on the attitude towards sects. The mixture LLRA is implemented in the menu-driven program MIXLLRA which can be obtained from Ivo Ponocny via e-mail (ivo.ponocny@univie.ac.at).     

The Role of Scheduling in Learning Through Observation

In the 2 experiments reported in the present article, participants (N = 40, Experiment 1; N = 60, Experiment 2) learned to solve complex puzzles under different schedules of physical practice, observation, or a combination of the two. The results of both studies indicated that observation, in the absence of any physical practice, allows the development of an accurate but relatively nonfunctional cognitive representation. The data suggest that, even when the motor demands are minimal, the functional significance of the cognitive representation is not maximally realized until physical interaction with the task is possible. Thus, providing the participant with an interspersed practice schedule during acquisition enables that interaction to occur, thereby allowing the absolute number of physical practice trials to be reduced and replaced by observation trials, but leading to equivalent learning.     

字词视觉空间特征在中文阅读眼动控制中的作用

研究采用4（呈现方式：小－小、小－大、大－小、大－大）×2（文本内容：句子、“※”串）的被试内设计,考察了文本字符呈现大小对读者眼跳选择目标和注视持续时间的影响。结果发现：（1）读者在浏览不同呈现方式的“※”串时的眼动模式基本上与阅读相应呈现方式的句子类似;（2）句子完全是由双字词构成,词内的首字和尾字大小不等（‘小－大”和“大－小”呈现条件）严重影响阅读效率;（3）读者在阅读句子时的注视时间高于浏览“※”串时的注视时间。结果说明,视觉呈现方式和词汇加工均影响读者的眼动模式。     

内隐时间表征的实验研究

用两个实验五种作业,探讨内隐时间表征存在的可能性及其特点。结果表明：在表征动量中,（1）无论诱导图形内隐运动方向向左还是向右,测试图形与识记图形之间位置偏移的错误率在与诱导图形内隐运动方向一致的条件下比不一致的条件下大;（2）诱导图形内隐运动的一致性时间顺序消失之后,表征动量不存在;（3）在100ms的时间范围内,识记图形、测试图形之间的保持时距与记忆位置偏移呈线性相关;（4）在水平方向和垂直方向上,客体的概念和背景知识对表征动量无影响,研究结果肯定了表征动量中内隐时间表征的存在并具有方向性、顺序性、连续性和认知不可渗透性的特点。     

青少年高冒险行为与大脑发展

青少年时期是一个转折期,也是冒险行为多发的时期。以往有关青少年冒险行为的研究大多集中在心理学视角与社会关系学视角,双系统竞争理论从生物学视角对青少年高冒险行为作出解释。该理论认为青少年高冒险行为的产生主要是由于大脑中的社会情绪系统与认知控制系统相互竞争作用的结果。社会情绪系统对奖赏寻求起作用,而认知控制系统对执行功能起作用。较早发展的社会情绪系统与较晚才成熟的认知控制系统间的竞争是青少年冒险行为产生的原因。     

认知诊断模型发展及其应用方法述评

认知心理学和心理测量学结合派生出的认知诊断理论, 利用现代统计方法和计算机技术作为工具, 诊断被试的认知结构和认知过程。认知诊断有多种模型, 不同的模型有不同的特点及应用条件。模型的选择和认知诊断方法的应用对认知诊断的结果有重要的影响, 因此在选择模型之时需要了解各种认知诊断模型的发展过程及优缺点。     

不同类型问题的关键信息表征及其认知加工研究

目的:研究关键信息表征在不同类型问题解决中的作用;方法:本研究使用五种不同类型问题作为实验材料对75名文理科大学生进行问题解决研究,并采用回归统计分析了关键信息、过程策略、信息处理方式三个解题要素对正确解答的效应;结果:(1)关键信息对正确解答作用显著,关键信息表征对正确解题有较好的预测作用;(2)关键信息在不同类型问题解决中的作用有所不同;(3)过程策略对正确解答效应显著。     

动态和静态条件下内隐时间的存在和特征

采用2×2×2混合实验设计,使用具体和抽象两种不同性质的图形材料对动态和静态两种条件下内隐时间的存在及其特征进行了考察,结果表明：（1）动态条件下被试对抽象图形的位置偏移判断更为准确;（2）测试图形与识记图形之间位置偏移判断的错误率在测试图形与诱导图形内隐运动方向一致的条件下比不一致条件下大;（3）无论实验材料为具体图形还是抽象图形,被试对测试图形和识记图形的位置偏移判断错误率之间不存在差异。研究结果证明了内隐时间的存在,进一步探明了内隐时间具有方向性和认知不可渗透性的特点,并证明了运动范式为研究内隐时间及其特点的有效方法。