Strategies for social inference: a similarity contingency model of projection and stereotyping in attribute prevalence estimates

Most models of how perceivers infer the widespread attitudes and qualities of social groups revolve around either the self (social projection, false consensus) or stereotypes (stereotyping). The author suggests people rely on both of these inferential strategies, with perceived general similarity moderating their use, leading to increased levels of projection and decreased levels of stereotyping. Three studies featuring existing individual differences in perceived similarity as well as manipulated perceptions supported the predictions, with similarity yielding increased projection to, and decreased stereotyping of, various in-groups and out-groups. Evidence that projection and stereotyping may serve as inferential alternatives also emerged. The model and accompanying results have implications for research on social comparison and projection, stereotyping and prejudice, and social inference.     

Social Categorization and Stereotyping: How Social Categorization Biases Person Perception and Face Memory

The current article offers a brief history of research and theory related to social categorization and stereotyping. We begin by outlining research focusing on category selection, category activation, and category application. We then discuss the consequences of social categorization, noting that one of the most important and ubiquitous effects of social categorization is homogenization or assimilation. We then extend this research related to the assimilative consequences of social categorization to the realm of face memory. Specifically, we introduce the Categorization‐Individuation Model (see also Hugenberg et al., forthcoming) as a new model of the Cross‐Race Effect, or the difficulty many perceivers have in recognizing members of other racial groups. The Categorization‐Individuation Model argues that the Cross‐Race Effect is due to the tendency to categorize out‐group members but individuate in‐group members. Finally, we summarize the extant research in support of this new model of person memory and close by discussing the current state of, and potential future directions for, social categorization research.     

社会分类的概念、线索及影响机制

作为社会认知的基本过程和重要途径,社会分类对预测刻板印象和群际感知、减少多元文化群体中的关系冲突、促进推理与决策以及指导社会关系推断等都有重要作用。人们进行社会分类的线索可以概括为明显线索和模糊线索、自然线索和社会线索以及静态线索和动态线索。社会分类会受到分类对象、情境和感知者等的作用,同时对人们认知、情绪、情感和行为等产生一系列影响。未来可以基于跨文化和发展视角探讨社会分类的线索偏向、潜在机制及立足本土文化检验社会分类的影响及干预策略。     

Developmental and Social Determinants of Religious Social Categorization

The purpose of this study was to assess developmental and social determinants of the age at which children become aware that the social environment can be marked by categorization into religious groups and that those groups are associated with different religious beliefs. The results show that middle childhood is a critical period for this religious social categorization. Moreover, social factors play a role in the development. Religious categorization is likely to appear sooner in children attending heterogeneous schools than in those at homogeneous schools, and children from the minority religious group in the country understand religious categorization earlier than children from the majority group. However, no relation was found between the age at which religious categorization was understood and parents’ religious socialization practices. This study is of both theoretical and practical interest: It complements what is already known about gender, race, and ethnic categorization by integrating developmental and social frameworks, and it can serve as a guideline for educational programs.     

Social categorization and the formation of group stereotypes: Further evidence for biased information processing in the perception of group-behavior correlations

An experiment tested the hypothesis that the mere categorization of people into social groups spontaneously instigates a mechanism through which group-relevant information is perceived and processed in a biased manner. This in turn may result in the erroneous perception of correlation between group and behavior. Subjects were initially assigned to be members of a minority group, a majority group, or were not assigned to a group. They were then presented with a series of statements that described members of the two groups performing either desirable or undesirable behaviors. Results showed that unaffiliated subjects perceived an illusory group-behavior correlation, indicating the operation of a cognitive bias to associate the minority group with distinctive behaviors. Subjects who were themselves members of the observed groups perceived illusory correlations that favored their own group, indicating a very different sort of bias. The results suggest that a categorization-based ingroup favoritism guided the manner in which group information was processed. These data lend support to the contention that social categorization spontaneously instigates specific cognitive mechanisms that contribute to group stereotype formation.     

Memory for in-group and out-group information in a minimal group context: the self as an informational base

The authors argue that persons derive in-group expectancies from self-knowledge. This implies that perceivers process information about novel in-groups on the basis of the self-congruency of this information and not simply its valence. In Experiment 1, participants recalled more negative self-discrepant behaviors about an in-group than about an out-group. Experiment 2 replicated this effect under low cognitive load but not under high load. Experiment 3 replicated the effect using an idiographic procedure. These findings suggest that perceivers engage in elaborative inconsistency processing when they encounter negative self-discrepant information about an in-group but not when they encounter negative self-congruent information. Participants were also more likely to attribute self-congruent information to the in-group than to the out-group, regardless of information valence. Implications for models of social memory and self-categorization theory are discussed.     

Self–other and third‐person categorization in normal and autistic children

Social information processing has been found to vary as a function of whether perceivers categorize individuals in terms of self and other (SO‐categorization) or using categories associated with the third pronominal person (3P‐categorization). Normal children aged 3–8, autistic children aged 5–9 and adult students were presented with decision tasks that enabled us to assess the use of SO‐ and 3P‐categorizations. A breakthrough of the SO‐categorization was observed at age 5. The hypothesis that 3P‐categorization precedes SO‐categorization was strongly disconfirmed, only adults showing consistent 3P‐categorization. Although previous research suggested a strong association between SO‐categorization and ‘I–Thou’ related social understanding, performances of autistic children suggested that impaired understanding of mental life does not detract from the ability to use SO‐categorization.     

Motivational Similarity and Interpersonal Evaluations: The Role of Ambiguity, Self-Derogation, and Emotion

ABSTRACT The present study tests two hypotheses which are based on a motivational threat model of interpersonal evaluation: ( a ) Dominance- and dependency-oriented perceivers evaluate motivationally similar others less favorably only when evaluation pertains to an ambiguous attribute and perceivers score high on self-derogation; and ( b ) the relatively unfavorable evaluation of the similar target person is mediated by an arousal process. Males observed a working dyad in which one man was dominant and the other dependent, but both were ambiguous on sociability. Throughout the observation, subjects' emotion-related skin conductance responses were monitored. Subjects then evaluated the target person they expected to meet and recalled information. Results supported the first hypothesis, but were only partially consistent with the second hypothesis. In addition, dominance-oriented perceivers produced more assertiveness constructs than dependency-oriented perceivers in free recall. The findings suggest that the threat model should be revised to include the moderating factors of attribute ambiguity and attitude toward the self, and perhaps also an additional mediating process: generalization of attitude toward the self to motivationally similar others.     

Categorization and individuation in the cross-race recognition deficit: Toward a solution to an insidious problem

Recent theory and evidence suggest that the Cross-Race Effect (better recognition for same-race (SR) faces than for cross-race (CR) faces) is due to social-cognitive processes of categorization of out-group members, causing perceivers to attend to category-specifying information of CR faces at the expense of individuating information. Three experiments seek to extend this social-cognitive explanation of the CRE by investigating the extent to which the Cross-Race Effect can be reduced by inducing perceivers to individuate rather than categorize CR faces. In all three experiments, participants who received warning of the Cross-Race Effect prior to encoding, and instructions to individuate out-group members, showed no CRE. Experiment 2 suggests that this elimination of the CRE was not due merely to increased motivation to process all stimuli. This is one of few empirical displays of an elimination of the CRE outside of visual training. Moreover, these results are congenial with Levin’s (2000) feature-selection model, which suggests that the CRE is due to differential social cognitions about in-group and out-group members, rather than to differences in perceptual expertise. By eliciting individuation of out-group members at encoding, the CRE can be eliminated.     

Our Followers Are Lions,Theirs Are Sheep: How Social Identity Shapes Theories About Followership and Social Influence

Two studies examine how self‐categorization theory can be used to refine our understanding of people's implicit theories about followership and social influence. Results from Study 1 show that perceivers regard followers of a group they themselves identify strongly with (rather than not at all) to be more representative of the prototype of effective followers (displaying enthusiasm, industry, good citizenship) and to be less representative of the antiprototype of effective followers (displaying conformity, incompetence, and insubordination). Results are replicated in a second experiment in which we compare the views of those self‐categorizing as either Republican or Democrat responding to followers of the Republican and Democratic Party. Results of Study 2 replicate those of Study 1 and also reveal qualitative differences in the preferred influence strategy for dealing with followers. Specifically, respondents seek to engage in persuasion when trying to change the behavior of ingroup followers, while resorting to coercion when trying to change the behavior of outgroup followers. Our results are the first to provide evidence that perceivers' theories about what followers are like and how they are influenced most effectively are structured by perceivers' identification (and dis‐identification) with the particular groups that leaders are championing.     

社会认知内容的“大二”模型

社会认知的内容存在两个基本维度,一个与热情或社会性特质有关,另一个与能力或智力性特质有关,称之为社会认知内容的"大二"模型。关于"大二"模型的理论有进化心理学、本体论和功能性三种解释。目前,"大二"模型的理论焦点集中在模型的文化普适性检验、两维度之间的关系以及两个维度的权重和偏好问题上。今后可结合本土实际情况围绕着三大焦点问题和两维度的具身研究等问题进行深入探讨。     

Emergent Research in Social Vision: An Integrated Approach to the Determinants and Consequences of Social Categorization

Social categorization research has historically focused either on understanding how observers utilize visual cues in the face and body to make judgments of others or on understanding the downstream consequences that occur following social categorizations, but rarely both. Recently, however, research has evidenced a marked shift toward an integrated approach. Here, we provide a snapshot of social vision's contributions to the study of social categorization with a goal of illuminating the new and exciting directions afforded by an integrative approach. From this perspective, social categorizations are characterized not only as being informed by visual cues but also as being malleable, probabilistic, and contextualized. Moreover, the process of categorization itself can affect evaluative outcomes directly, independent of categorization. By exploring empirical evidence for this integrated approach to the determinants and consequences of social categorization, we show how the emerging field of social vision has revealed new insights into the nature of social categorization and by extension its implications for evaluations.     

Self-stereotyping: the central role of an ingroup threatening identity

Self-stereotyping is a process by which people belonging to a stigmatized social group tend to describe themselves more with stereotypical traits as compared with traits irrelevant to the ingroup stereotype. The present work analyzes why especially members of low-status groups are more inclined to self-stereotype compared to members of high-status groups. We tested the hypothesis that belonging to a low-, rather than a high-status group, makes low-status members feel more threatened and motivates them to protect their self-perception by increasing their similarity with the ingroup. Specifically, we investigated the effects of an experimental manipulation that was conceived to either threaten or protect the natural group membership of participants from either a low- or a high-status group on the level of self-stereotyping. The findings supported the idea that only low-status group members protected themselves when their group identity was threatened through increased self-stereotyping.     

Perceiving expatriate coworkers as foreigners encourages aid: social categorization and procedural justice together improve intergroup cooperation and dual identity

We propose that social categorization can encourage particular forms of intergroup cooperation because it differentiates a group in need from a group that can give aid. Moreover, social categorization is most likely to occur when individuals perceive procedural justice (i.e., fair treatment) from authorities in a superordinate group that includes the individuals' subgroup. Two field studies investigating relations between local and foreign coworkers tested not only this prediction, but also whether high social categorization and procedural justice would yield a dual identity, in which group members identify simultaneously with their social category and the superordinate group. Both studies supported our predictions: Local employees engaged a dual identity and offered knowledge to aid a foreign coworker's adjustment more often when local-foreign categorization and procedural justice from organizational authorities were high than when these variables were low. These discoveries point to controllable mechanisms that enable intergroup cooperation, and our findings have important implications for intergroup aid, expatriate adjustment, immigration, and multiculturalism.     

A Social Categorization Explanation for Framing Effects in Nested Social Dilemmas

This study developed and tested the idea that social categorization processes help to explain framing effects in social dilemmas. Using self-categorization theory, we predicted that members of a collective would cooperate more when they faced homogeneous rather than heterogeneous resource frames. We manipulated the starting point of resources for the members of each of two subgroups making up a larger collective in a nested social dilemma. The resources of the subject's own subgroup started at the individual, subgroup, or collective level, and the resources of the opposing subgroup also started at the individual, subgroup, or collective level. The condition in which both subgroups' resources began at the collective level was similar to a traditional commons dilemma, while the condition in which both subgroups' resources began at the individual level was similar to a traditional public goods problem. The other conditions were new to this research domain. We found higher allocations to the collective account when the initial resource location was the same for both subgroups (versus different for each subgroup), even when this initial location was the subgroup or individual level. Whereas previous explanations for framing effects cannot account for these results, social categorization processes provide a parsimonious explanation for the observed pattern of allocations.     

老年人的元刻板印象及其对社会互动的影响

本研究考察了老年人的元刻板印象及其对老年人社会互动的影响。预研究以35名老年人为被试,通过访谈和开放式问卷,获得老年人积极与消极元刻板印象形容词。正式研究以140名老年人为被试,通过问卷调查,首先确定老年人元刻板印象的内容与结构;然后分析发现,当老年人作为社会互动的接受方时：（1）积极元刻板印象正向预测其接受外群体帮助的意愿（包括自主定向帮助和依赖定向帮助）,并且接受帮助可引发积极受助体验;（2）消极元刻板印象只正向预测老年人接受外群体自主定向帮助的意愿,且持消极元刻板印象的老年人受助体验消极。当老年人作为社会互动的发出方时;（3）积极元刻板印象正向预测老年人社会参与的频率和他们对外群体的施助意愿;（4）消极元刻板印象对施助意愿和社会参与的预测作用均不显著。综上,老年人的积极元刻板印象能促进他们的社会互动,并使他们获得良好的互动体验。     

老年人的元刻板印象及其对社会互动的影响

本研究考察了老年人的元刻板印象及其对老年人社会互动的影响。预研究以35名老年人为被试，通过访谈和开放式问卷，获得老年人积极与消极元刻板印象形容词。正式研究以140名老年人为被试，通过问卷调查，首先确定老年人元刻板印象的内容与结构；然后分析发现，当老年人作为社会互动的接受方时：（1）积极元刻板印象正向预测其接受外群体帮助的意愿（包括自主定向帮助和依赖定向帮助），并且接受帮助可引发积极受助体验；（2）消极元刻板印象只正向预测老年人接受外群体自主定向帮助的意愿，且持消极元刻板印象的老年人受助体验消极。当老年人作为社会互动的发出方时；（3）积极元刻板印象正向预测老年人社会参与的频率和他们对外群体的施助意愿；（4）消极元刻板印象对施助意愿和社会参与的预测作用均不显著。综上，老年人的积极元刻板印象能促进他们的社会互动，并使他们获得良好的互动体验。     

Are we looking for positivity or similarity in a partner's outlook on life? Similarity predicts perceptions of social attractiveness and relationship quality

Previous research has shown that people with an optimistic life orientation are perceived as socially more attractive than pessimists. However, following the similarity-attraction hypothesis, we assumed that both the perceiver's and the target's life orientation affects perceptions of social attractiveness. Moreover, we were interested in how the composition of romantic partners’ life orientation (similar vs. dissimilar) affects perceived relationship quality. The results of an experimental online study (N?=?316) confirmed previous findings: Overall, optimists were perceived as socially more attractive than pessimists. Furthermore, perceivers’ life orientation moderated that effect, which was larger with optimistic than with pessimistic perceivers. Moreover, with respect to ongoing relationships optimistic participants indicated higher relationship quality if they perceived their partners as similarly optimistic. The findings are in line with the similarity-attraction hypothesis. They are discussed with regard to the benefits of optimism in social interactions and relationships.     

Social Anxiety and Social Surrogacy in College Roommate Relationships

The social surrogate hypothesis proposes that people with higher social anxiety (HSA) recruit others to accompany them into social situations. We tested this hypothesis with college roommates using both hypothetical (Study 1) and retrospective (Study 2) measures, while assessing roommate's perceptions of recruitment and how social surrogacy might influence liking between roommates. Across two studies, we found that HSA participants were less likely to enter social situations alone (i.e. higher conditional entry); however, HSA was related to recruitment only when participants considered hypothetical scenarios, not when recruitment was assessed globally or retrospectively. There was little evidence that HSA participants' roommates were aware of these behaviours, although there was preliminary evidence that less social anxiety might increase liking when roommates perceived more conditional entry. We also found preliminary evidence that social anxiety may be negatively related to liking when participants were less likely to recruit an alternate surrogate if their roommate was unavailable. Taken together, these preliminary findings emphasize the importance of studying the surrogacy process from an interpersonal/dyadic perspective and using methods that will differentiate between anticipated (which may be assessed by hypothetical scenarios) and enacted recruitment behaviours. Copyright © 2017 European Association of Personality Psychology