冲动-思考型儿童在拼图游戏中的问题解决及元认知差异

以小学六年级思考型和冲动型儿童各32名为被试,通过考查儿童在完成不同难度拼图任务时的表现,探讨不同认知风格儿童在问题解决中认知活动和元认知活动的差异。结果发现:(1)在线与离线元认知监控均表现出认知风格与任务难度的交互作用。在简单和中等任务中,思考型的儿童运用更多的在线元认知监控,进行计划和检查的时间更长。离线元认知监控的差异只表现在简单任务中,思考型比冲动型儿童花费更多的时间进行预测和评价;(2)在问题解决结果上,认知风格不同的儿童完成任务的时间没有显著差异;(3)在问题解决过程中,冲动型儿童解决问题的操作步数多于思考型儿童;冲动型儿童更多地使用主体参照策略,而思考型儿童更多使用线索推断策略。     

3～8岁儿童对群体认知的社会性线索偏好及发展特点

基于社会分类的直觉理论和群体实体性的观点,本研究建构了物质性和社会性线索类型。两个子研究结合量化和质化方法,从社会分类视角探索了3～8岁儿童对群体认知线索的偏好及其发展。研究发现, 3～8岁儿童总体上存在社会性线索偏好,但其稳定性受到了研究选取的线索样例影响。儿童的社会性线索偏好随年龄增长而提升,自5～6岁开始更为突出和稳定。上述结果既说明了物质性和社会性线索框架的有效性,又在引导儿童的积极社会互动方面具有实践价值。     

心理虐待与儿童快感缺失的关系：认知重评的中介作用

本研究选取949名8～12岁儿童进行自我报告测验,并从中选取83名被试完成行为实验。研究考察了认知重评策略以及增强正性情绪的重评使用效果在心理虐待与儿童快感缺失间的中介作用。结果发现：（1）心理虐待与儿童快感缺失呈正相关,认知重评策略、增强调节认知重评效果与快感缺失均呈负相关;（2）认知重评策略在心理虐待与快感缺失间起中介作用;（3）增强调节认知重评效果在心理虐待与快感缺失间起中介作用。上述结果表明,心理虐待可通过认知重评来间接影响儿童快感缺失。     

不同线索下 3～9岁儿童的情绪认知、助人意向和助人行为

本研究通过个别施测,考察了600名3～9岁儿童在不同线索下的情绪认知、助人意向和助人行为。结果表明,情绪认知成绩随年龄的增长而提高,对情境和表情线索一致任务的认知优于对矛盾线索的认知,情绪认知利用线索随年龄的增长统合型逐渐取代表情依存型和情境依存型而占优势;不同难度的线索任务制约了儿童的助人意向和助人行为,情绪认知对助人意向和助人行为有不同的作用模式。     

议价博弈决策的权利认知效应

在议价博弈中,决策者可能存在因对自己及其他参与者拥有权利的认识程度不同,从而影响其策略选择及决策行为的现象。为验证该“权利认知效应”的存在,用实验法考察了240名不同年龄被试在两种议价博弈任务——最后通牒和纳什议价中的决策表现,结果发现：（1）6到12岁儿童和大学生中均存在权利认知效应;（2）随着年龄增长,受权利认知影响的人数呈现逐渐减少的趋势;（3）在议价博弈中,儿童对分配权的认识程度高于对否决权的认知。     

背景线索和认知风格对真实场景中目标搜索影响的眼动研究

采用眼动记录方法,研究背景线索和认知风格对真实场景中目标搜索三阶段的影响。实验以真实的室内场景图片为材料,通过重复呈现整体背景一致或局部背景一致的场景,考察不同场认知风格被试在整体背景线索和局部背景线索条件下在目标搜索各阶段的眼动特征。结果表明,整体背景线索和局部背景线索对目标搜索的启动和确认阶段没有影响,对扫描阶段有促进作用,且整体背景线索效应大于局部背景线索效应,主要体现在能更有效地选择注视区域,在单次注视中获得更多的信息,更迅速地拒绝当前注视区域和计划下一次眼跳;认知风格不影响个体在真实场景目标搜索过程中对背景线索的利用。     

心理虐待对儿童认知情绪调节策略的影响：人格特质的中介作用

采用儿童认知情绪调节问卷、儿童版艾森克人格问卷、儿童心理虐待量表对405名8～12岁儿童进行研究,考察人格特质在心理虐待对认知情绪调节策略关系中的中介作用。结果发现：(1)儿童心理虐待与不适应性认知情绪调节策略呈显著正相关;儿童神经质与不适应性认知情绪调节策略呈显著正相关儿童内外倾与适应性认知情绪调节策略呈显著正相关(2)儿童神经质在心理虐待与儿童不适应性认知情绪调节策略关系间起到完全中介作用（3）该中介模型具有性别和年龄的测量等值性。研究结果显示,儿童心理虐待可以通过神经质的中介作用影响不适应性认知情绪调节策略。     

数量让位价值：5～10岁儿童公平分配发展的“此消彼长”

操纵资源价值与数量的比例关系，形成互不影响的数量平等与价值平等，考察5～10岁儿童在不同卷入情境中公平分配发展的特点。结果发现：（1）6岁以后儿童公平分配发展存在数量平等“消”和价值平等“长”的特点；（2）与第一方卷入情境相比，在第三方卷入情境中9～10岁儿童公平行为发展存在差异，而公平认知不受卷入情境影响；（3）儿童公平认知发展能正向指导公平行为表现，但会受卷入情境、年龄和性别影响。     

6~10岁儿童对损人情境下行为者的道德情绪判断与归因

采用故事情境法探讨6~10岁儿童对损人情境下损人者和旁观者的道德情绪判断与归因的发展。结果发现：（1）在损人情境下,6岁儿童能理解损人行为是不对的,但直到8岁儿童才能理解旁观行为是不对的;（2）随着年龄增长,儿童判断损人者的愉悦程度逐渐降低,情绪归因从结果定向过渡到道德定向;儿童判断旁观者的愉悦程度逐渐降低,情绪归因从无法有效归因过渡到道德定向;（3）儿童对不同行为者的道德情绪判断同时受年龄和性别的影响,6岁男孩判断损人者愉悦程度显著高于女孩,6岁男孩判断旁观者愉悦程度显著低于女孩;8岁和10岁儿童对两类行为者的道德情绪判断未发现显著的性别差异。     

5—7岁儿童加法策略的发展特点

随机选取72名5～7岁儿童为被试,采用实验法和访谈法对儿童解决简单加法问题的策略的发展特点进行探索。结果发现,随着年龄的增长,儿童使用提取策略明显上升,逐渐成为主导策略,而数数策略逐渐减少,凑十策略、心理算盘策略和分解策略只有在少数儿童身上发现,整体看5～7岁儿童没有出现多种策略的竞争趋势;提取和从大数开始数的策略是5～7岁儿童较为优秀的解决简单加法问题的策略。     

An exploratory study of cognitive style in performance on matched and mismatched tasks

Researchers have suggested that task performance is often dependent upon the congruence of cognitive style and task. To explore this suggestion, 44 female and 4 male undergraduates were administered the Cognitive Style Analysis, the Closure Flexibility, the Composite Gestalt Completion Test, and the Vocabulary subtest from the WAIS. Specifically, four hypotheses were tested: (1) that participants with an analytic style will perform better than those with a wholistic style on the Closure Flexibility; (2) that participants with a wholistic style will perform better than those with an analytic style on the Composite Gestalt Completion Test; (3) that participants with an intermediate style will outperform persons with an analytic style on the Composite Gestalt Completion Test; and (4) that intermediate scorers would perform better than those with a wholistic style on Closure Flexibility. Only the second hypothesis was supported, so results provide only minimal support for the effect of match or mismatch of cognitive style and task performance.     

The politics of insight

Previous studies showed that liberals and conservatives differ in cognitive style. Liberals are more flexible, and tolerant of complexity and novelty, whereas conservatives are more rigid, are more resistant to change, and prefer clear answers. We administered a set of compound remote associate problems, a task extensively used to differentiate problem-solving styles (via insight or analysis). Using this task, several researches have proven that self-reports, which differentiate between insight and analytic problem-solving, are reliable and are associated with two different neural circuits. In our research we found that participants self-identifying with distinct political orientations demonstrated differences in problem-solving strategy. Liberals solved significantly more problems via insight instead of in a step-by-step analytic fashion. Our findings extend previous observations that self-identified political orientations reflect differences in cognitive styles. More specifically, we show that type of political orientation is associated with problem-solving strategy. The data converge with previous neurobehavioural and cognitive studies indicating a link between cognitive style and the psychological mechanisms that mediate political beliefs.     

Reactivity and regulation in children prenatally exposed to cocaine

Children prenatally exposed to cocaine may be at elevated risk for adjustment problems in early development because of greater reactivity and reduced regulation during challenging tasks. Few studies have examined whether cocaine-exposed children show such difficulties during the preschool years, a period marked by increased social and cognitive demands and by rapid changes in reactivity and regulation. The authors addressed this question by examining frustration reactivity and regulation of behavior during a problem-solving task in cocaine-exposed and -unexposed preschoolers. Participants were 174 4.5-year-olds (M age = 4.55 years, SD = 0.09). Frustration reactivity was measured as latency to show frustration and number of disruptive behaviors, whereas regulation was measured as latency to approach and attempt the problem-solving task and number of problem-solving behaviors. Results indicated that cocaine-exposed children took longer to attempt the problem-solving task but that cocaine-exposed boys showed the most difficulties: They were quicker to express frustration and were more disruptive. Effect sizes were relatively small, suggesting both resilience and vulnerabilities.     

The role of problem solving in complex intraverbal repertoires

We examined whether typically developing preschoolers could learn to use a problem-solving strategy that involved self-prompting with intraverbal chains to provide multiple responses to intraverbal categorization questions. Teaching the children to use the problem-solving strategy did not produce significant increases in target responses until problem solving was modeled and prompted. Following the model and prompts, all participants showed immediate significant increases in intraverbal categorization, and all prompts were quickly eliminated. Use of audible self-prompts was evident initially for all participants, but declined over time for 3 of the 4 children. Within-session response patterns remained consistent with use of the problem-solving strategy even when self-prompts were not audible. These findings suggest that teaching and prompting a problem-solving strategy can be an effective way to produce intraverbal categorization responses.     

Children’s choice strategies: the effects of age and task demands

Two experiments examined the effect of age and cognitive demands on children’s choice strategies. Children aged 8–9 and 12–13 years were asked to choose among either two or four products that differed in several attributes of varying importance to them. Choice tasks were designed to differentiate between the lexicographic and the equal-weighting strategies that the children used. The results showed that older children use the two strategies more appropriately than younger children do. The choice of strategies reflects the demands of the task. All children were more likely to use the strategies correctly when choosing between two alternatives and tended to rely on the relatively less cognitive-demanding lexicographic strategy to choose among four alternatives. However, they were less likely to employ the lexicographic strategy in simpler tasks and when its use was difficult to justify, indicating an adaptive use.     

Young children's storage behavior in a memory-for-location task

Two experiments concerned with children's intentional preparation for future retrieval in a memory-for-location task are presented. In the first experiment, 3-, 5-, 7-, and 9-year-olds were instructed to store and subsequently retrieve an object on a large spatial display. All age groups, except the 3-year-olds, tended to store the object at distinctive locations and their retrieval performance was facilitated accordingly. The four age groups did not differ in the types of selections made in a nonmemory control task. The second experiment dealt with the effects of feedback and informational factors on strategy acquisition. Preschoolers were given experience at retrieving the object from distinctive and nondistinctive positions on the stimulus display. Later, when instructed to store the object by themselves, older preschoolers produced the distinctive-position storage strategy following a feedback procedure in which they directly observed the consequences of their retrieval selections. The strategy was adopted by younger preschoolers, but only when additional strategy and task information accompanied visual feedback. The use of external memory tasks with young children and factors affecting strategy acquisition and utilization are discussed.     

The influence of ongoing task absorption on preschoolers’ prospective memory with peripheral cues

ABSTRACT

Prospective memory (PM) represents the ability to perform a planned action after a certain delay. Substantial increases of PM have been shown across the ages of preschool children. However, previous studies have mostly focused on PM tasks, in which the PM cue was presented centrally (i.e. inside the centre of attention). The current study examined developmental differences between 3-, 4-, and 5-year old preschoolers using PM tasks, in which the PM cue was presented peripherally and investigated the influence of ongoing task absorption on children’s performance on such tasks. Results showed that PM performance increased over preschool age and that it was affected by ongoing task absorption, with significantly better PM performance on a low- versus a high-absorbing ongoing task. Importantly, age differences were only present in the low- but not in the high-absorbing condition, showing that preschoolers’ PM improves when less cognitive resources are absorbed by the ongoing task.     

学前儿童朴素情绪理论的发展

对情绪的心理层面的理解是幼儿心理理论发展中出现得相对较迟的能力, 他们如何通过愿望和信念等不同的心理状态对人们的情绪做出判断？随着年龄的增长, 他们采用不同策略推测情绪的能力又发生了什么变化？本研究结合主人公愿望是否得到满足的状态, 通过利用图片故事个别测查的方法探查了90名3~5岁学前儿童在“内容错误信念”任务中对他人情绪的推测。结果显示, 年幼儿童、尤其是3岁幼儿的高兴情绪理解受其对情境是否满足愿望的认知的影响, 呈现出显著的“积极情绪偏差效应”; 学前儿童对情绪的认知表现出从不能采用信念—愿望策略到错误地采用信念—愿望策略、到正确采用信念—愿望策略的发展模式, 且其基于信念的情绪理解在一定程度上呈现出落后于其错误信念理解的“滞后效应”。结果还显示幼儿的惊奇情绪判断不仅由信念成分决定, 也受愿望理解的影响。这些结果突显出心理状态在儿童情绪理解中的重要作用, 揭示出学前儿童相对完整的朴素情绪理论发展模式。     

认知操作、认知方式与外倾性人格特质的关系

对28名外倾被试和28名内倾被试进行实验性认知测试,以考察认知操作、认知方式与外倾性人格特质的关系。结果表明,内外倾被试在含有社会认知操作、非社会认知操作的认知任务的测试总分上没有差异,而在社会认知一非社会认知方式的评价分数上存在显著差异。外倾被试更多地倾向于社会认知型认知方式,内倾被试更多地倾向于非社会认知型认知方式。研究结果支持了外倾性与智力关系的假设：外倾性与社会认知一非社会认知的认知方式存在相关关系,而与认知操作测试总分无关。     

When Reflection Hinders Creative Problem-Solving: a Test of Alternative Reflection Strategies

A growing body of evidence suggests that reflecting on performance is an important source of individual learning. Given the importance of creativity in contemporary business settings, reflection has also been cast as a useful strategy to facilitate creative problem-solving. Challenging this idea, we conducted a series of lab experiments to examine the effects of reflection on creative problem-solving. Drawing from theory in cognitive psychology on knowledge structures, we argue that reflection may sometimes debilitate rather than improve creative problem-solving, due to the reinforcement of existing cognitive schemas and the resulting cognitive entrenchment. To test our theoretical arguments, we developed two alternative reflection strategies, imaginative reflection and vicarious elaboration. In Study 1 (N = 101), we observed a detrimental effect of task reflection on creative problem-solving, which was offset by having participants engage in imaginative reflection. In Study 2 (N = 191), vicarious elaboration, elaborating on another’s creative experiences instead of reflecting on one’s own creative experiences, was introduced as a second strategy to counter cognitive entrenchment. In Study 3 (N = 235), we combined the reflection strategies, demonstrating that imaginative thinking was more effective when focused on one’s own experiences rather than on others’ experiences (i.e., vicarious imaginative elaboration). Together, these findings increase our understanding of the effects of different reflection strategies, but also call for further research to address an intriguing observation: none of the reflection strategies led to better outcomes as compared to a control condition without reflection, suggesting that individual reflection might not help creative problem-solving at all.