Increased sales and thefts of candy as a function of sales promotion activities: Preliminary findings

We used an A-B-A design to evaluate the effects of two commonly used promotional activities-price reduction and increased exposure, in combination and separately-on sales and thefts of candy at a grocery store. The combination of activities and the increased exposure condition produced the greatest increases in sales. The combination of activities was also associated with the greatest increase in thefts.     

A taxonomy for financial services selling

The financial services industry accounts for almost half of the country’s nonfarm, commercial profit, making the industry a major driver of the economy. Prior to this study, limited information was available to evaluate financial services sales activities, and a taxonomy of sales activities for individuals in the financial services industry had not previously been conducted. Prior empirically developed sales taxonomies did not include service firms and specifically financial services, while focusing on manufacturing and other product sales. Given that taxonomies are a critical step in scientific inquiry, this is a major limitation in the literature hindering the development of a better understanding of this important industry. Using an established methodology and a seminal sales taxonomy, a financial services sales taxonomy was conducted. Results reflect that financial services sales positions differ from those in other industries. Six sets of sales activities (factors) along with six job positions (clusters) were identified.     

Selling & Sales Management in Action: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF INCENTIVES IN A SALES FORCE CONTEST

The sales job of the early twenty-first century has evolved due to myriad rapidly changing environmental factors. Customer relationship focus, technology, global competition, shifting customer preferences and demands, forced downsizing, increased competitive pressure, and other factors have contributed to altering the salesperson role—what salespeople do. Yet outdated taxonomies are referenced when researching and writing about sales jobs. This paper develops an empirically generated sales position taxonomy based on changing selling activities and strategies. First, a set of 105 activities are factor analyzed to create 12 dimensions of selling. Second, the factor scores are entered into a cluster analysis. The resulting factor score centroids allow for interpretation of a taxonomy of six categories of contemporary sales jobs.     

睡眠剥夺与购物后悔：来自大规模个体层面数据的证据

睡眠剥夺正在成为人们面临的一种普遍问题,但是已有研究很少将睡眠剥夺与消费者行为联系起来。本文采用真实购物情境下的大规模消费者个体层面数据(N=1625472),通过建立计量经济学模型来研究睡眠剥夺与购物后悔的关系。结果表明,睡眠剥夺显著地增加了消费者的购物后悔倾向,具体在行为上表现为增加了商品的退货概率和加快了商品的退货速度。此外,商品的价格正向调节了睡眠剥夺对购物后悔的影响,而促销优惠金额的比例则负向调节了睡眠剥夺对购物后悔的影响。     

Effects of group response-cost procedures on cash shortages in a small business

The effect of a group response-cost procedure (accompanied by verbal and written instruction) designed to decrease cash shortages in a small business was evaluated with a reversal design. When cash shortages were subtracted from the six employees' salaries on days in which the shortage exceeded 1% of total daily sales, the magnitude of daily shortages sharply decreased. This response-cost contingency was used only three times throughout the study, with a maximum cost of $8.70 per subject over the 41-day period. The efficacy of the procedures may be due to either increased precision in change calculations, a decreased frequency of stealing from the cash register, increased shortchanging of customers, and/or increased incidents of register under-ringing. Ethical questions relative to the utilization of group punishment procedures are raised, and it was concluded that the procedures used were more humane than commonly used alternatives.     

A Repertoire of Marketers' Trust-Building Strategies Within The Sales-Marketing Interface

Examining how sales and marketing personnel interrelate is analogous to studying intergroup cooperation wherein two groups – sales and marketing – are required to work cooperatively to achieve specific firm-level objectives. While extensive literature in psychology and management has implied that trust is an important precursor of enhanced intergroup cooperation, no extant scholarly work has explicated the specific activities sales and marketing personnel may engage in to build trust within the sales-marketing interface (SMI). We use qualitative methodology and in-depth interview data collected from 29 sales and marketing executives in Saudi Arabia to investigate the specific activities that may help marketers build trust with their sales counterparts and signal to them that they are a dependable partner. Study findings suggest that when marketers (a) act as salespeople's ambassadors to senior leaders; (b) stay invested in salespeople's success; and (c) act as a semipermeable barrier between salespeople and the leadership, they are able to engender trust with salespeople. In addition to providing a preliminary thesis regarding how marketers may build trust within SMI, study findings highlight how the specific trust-building activities may contribute to strategic phenomena such as marketing-strategy making, sales buy-in of marketing strategies, and organizational learning.     

Sales Productivity of Insurance Agents During the First Six Months of Employment: Differences Between Older and Younger New Hires

This study investigated the relationship of information-seeking from managers and coworkers, number of prospecting methods used, and number of joint sales calls the new hire went on with managers and coworkers to sales productivity during the first six months of employment. This study also investigated whether age was directly related to sales productivity, indirectly related through its influence on the other independent variables, or moderated the relationship between the independent variables and sales productivity. Results showed that age and going on joint sales calls with managers and coworkers were positively related to sales productivity. Age also served as a moderator. Older new hires who used a variety of prospecting techniques, and younger new hires who asked their peers for information about job and organizational procedures were better performers. The implications of these results for organizations are discussed.     

Sales Training and Education: Tracking Academic Research in Selling and Sales Management: Authors,Authorships, Academic Institutions,and Journals

This study examines and tracks the extent of selling and sales management research from 1993–1997. Two hundred and sixty- six published journal articles representing sixteen journals are examined to identify where and when selling and sales management researchers received their doctoral training, their employment location at time of publication, regional trends in the location of these researchers, and a count by-journal of selling and sales management articles that have appeared during the time period. A total of 280 individual authors from 175 different colleges and universities are included in the study. Overall, the general trends for scholarly activity in selling and sales management appear to be robust when compared to prior studies of sales research productivity.     

Promotions Spontaneously Induce a Positive Evaluative Response

Research has suggested that conscious cognitive processes mediate positive responses to promotions. In contrast, we find that exposure to promotional stimuli evokes a positive evaluative reaction spontaneously and that this reaction generalizes to products that are evaluated subsequently. Three experiments support our predictions and rule out alternative possibilities. Specifically, we find that promotions spontaneously evoke positive evaluative responses and that these responses mediate liking for a target product. Our findings also identify conditions under which promotion‐generated evaluative responses are transferred to products unrelated to the promotion and indicate the type of product categories that are likely to produce this effect. The theoretical and substantive implications of this research are discussed.     

AN OBJECTIVE EVALUATION OF A BEHAVIOR MODELING TRAINING PROGRAM

Past research on the effects of behavior modeling training has rarely focussed on actual changes in job performance. This paper describes a study in which results of a behavior modeling training program for sales representatives were evaluated in relation to effects on the sales performance of the participants. Sales associates selling large appliances, radios, and television sets for a large chain retailer in seven stores in one metropolitan area participated in a behavior modeling training program designed to improve their sales effectiveness. Before and after comparisons were made in their sales records with similar sales associates in seven matched stores who participated in other kinds of sales training during the same period. Sales representatives who received the behavior modeling training increased their sales by an average of 7% during the ensuing six-month period, while their counterparts in the control group stores showed a 3% decrease in average sales. The extra effort entailed in obtaining the needed sales records seemed to be worthwhile in providing convincing evidence of the value of the training.     

Extending overjustification: the effect of perceived reward-giver intention on response to rewards

The perceived intention model incorporates a new moderator, beliefs about reward-giver intention, into the overjustification paradigm. In 2 simulated shopping studies featuring products paired with promotional rewards, consumers who believed the marketer was promotion focused (reward used to encourage purchase) reported lower purchase intentions and brand attitudes for promoted products after promotion, whereas consumers who believed the marketer was reward focused (promotion used to distribute the reward) showed no attitude change. Promotion-focus beliefs lowered attitudes by heightening the contingency between the promotion and purchase and thereby increasing the perceived causal role of the reward. This effect was contingent on initial behavior--postpromotion attitude change occurred for consumers who actively engaged in product decisions but not for consumers who passively observed the choice sets.     

Generating leads with sequential persuasion: should sales influence tactics be consistent or complementary?

Firms are becoming increasingly systematic in sales lead generation activities and recognize that multiple interactions are often required to generate leads and to reassure buyers of the benefits of an offering. However, the literature is contradictory regarding what types of persuasive messages should be used across these multiple interactions. This paper investigates what combination of sales influence tactics (SITs) should be used when customers are approached more than once regarding the same offering, that is, sequentially. Should the SITs be consistent (the same), or complementary (different)? Consistent vs. complementary SIT approaches were tested in two field experiments, one with an electronics manufacturer in a single communication channel setting and one with a financial services provider in a cross-channel setting. The results supported our hypothesis and indicated that the use of complementary SITs across interactions, regardless of the order, increases lead conversion.     

New Directions in Sales Leadership Research

The changing environment facing sales organizations is characterized by the dimensions of complexity, collaboration, and accountability. Responding effectively to this dynamic environment requires a focus on specific leadership activities by senior sales leaders, field sales managers, and salespeople. A sales leadership framework is presented and used to identify and discuss specific leadership challenges and important research questions at different sales organization levels. Several new directions for sales leadership research are proposed to improve sales leadership thought and practice.     

Evaluation of Selling Performance: A Study of Current Practices

Abstract

Performance evaluation of salespeople is particularly important in this era of escalating costs and concern with productivity. This study of 213 sales executives indicated that sales managers tended to rely on qualitative bases for evaluation, used only a narrow set of quantitative bases, and evaluated salespeople over only a narrow range of selling activities. Suggestions for improving performance evaluation are provided. Findings of the study indicate that salesforce evaluation procedures utilized in practice differ from those provided in the sales management literature.     

PERFORMANCE TESTING: A ROSE AMONG THORNS?

Data on 21 performance tests, entry level and promotional, motor and verbal, were evaluated for 263 applicants for city government jobs over a 17-month period. The heterogeneity in applicants was matched by a similar heterogeneity in raters. Thorough training of raters, clear performance standards, and content valid tests resulted in average inter-rater reliabilities of .93 (promotional), .87 (entry level), .91 (motor) and .89 (verbal) for the different types and levels of tests. There was no evidence of adverse impact, and turnover decreased from 40 percent to less than 3 percent in the 9-26 months following the introduction of performance testing. In comparison to paper and pencil tests, performance tests were more cost effective, more face valid, and more acceptable to applicants in this situation. Considering the growing problems in public sector management, performance testing may be viewed as a rose among thorns.     

The Effects of Salesperson Need for Achievement and Sales Manager Leader Reward Behavior

A sample of 312 salespeople from diverse industries was used to develop a model that examined the influence of salesperson need for achievement and sales manager positive leader reward behavior on several key organizational outcomes. The organizational outcome variables examined were goal acceptance, sales performance, and organizational commitment. The results suggest that a salesperson’s need for achievement may lead to higher performance, but not necessarily commitment to the organization. However, positive leader reward behavior may strengthen a salesperson’s organizational commitment. The findings, along with suggestions for sales managers, are discussed.     

Introduction to the special issue on the intersection of professional selling and service

As organizational operations continue to evolve in response to increasing customer demands, frontline research has begun to consider how traditionally separate organizational functions may be complementary to firm performance. Specifically, as sales and service activities become increasingly intertwined within the frontline role, this special issue explores how the sales and service functions interact within an organization. The articles contained in this special issue consider the interaction of sales and service with respect to customer, employee, and firm outcomes. After introducing evolving thought in the area, we provide an overview of five articles that make up this special issue. We conclude by offering additional areas of research.     

Operant conditioning of activities of daily living on a psychogeriatric ward: a simple method.

On a psychogeriatric ward a simple token economy was established by handing out coffee and cigarette tickets for demands of concrete Activities of Daily Living from 14 men and 16 women. During the treatment period the number of target behaviors increased dramatically and many positive spin-off effects were observed. It was concluded that simple token economies of even 18 weeks can easily be introduced and administered and produce decisive positive changes with respect to psychogeriatric patients' activities of daily living, staff attitudes, and ward atmosphere.     

Sampling and Data Collection Methods in Sales Force Research: Issues and Recommendations for Improvement

Samples used in sales force research studies found in JM, JMR, JPSSM, and IMM over a seventeen year period were examined to discover the extent to which sales force sampling has met the issues of covering different industries and types of salespeople, of satisfying technical sampling requirements, and of clearly reporting on sampling methods. Recommendations for improving standards for conducting and reporting sales force sampling methodology in terms of the resources available are offered.     

The Selection of Freebies and the Preference for Freebie Promotions—A Perspective on Item Characteristics

Research on consumer decision making has mainly focused on individual products; however, many products are purchased with other items as part of a promotional package. This paper explores how the characteristics (hedonic versus utilitarian) of the items in freebie promotional packages (e.g., buy one item and get a different item for free) influence consumers' preference for the promotional package. Additionally, the authors examine how the characteristics of the focal item influence consumers' choice of either a hedonic or a utilitarian freebie item. Five experiments, rooted in the concepts of consumer avoidance of overloading negative emotions and motivation to seek hedonic pleasure, show that a package with one utilitarian and one hedonic item generates higher purchase intentions and willingness to pay than a package with either two hedonic or two utilitarian items. Furthermore, consumers who purchase a hedonic (utilitarian) focal item are more likely to choose a utilitarian (hedonic) freebie. These effects exist not only in hypothetical scenarios but also in an incentive‐compatible design. Moreover, the impact of the focal item characteristics on consumer choice of freebie is moderated by acquisition format and time separation. The authors also explore the internal mechanism influencing consumers' freebie choices. The findings have significant implications for both theory and practice. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.