空间信息表征对语义相关判断的影响

探讨空间信息对语义相关判断的影响。实验材料是具有内在纵向空间关系的词对,纵向呈现在计算机屏幕上,呈现顺序与指代物的空间位置次序一致或不一致,要求被试对词对进行语义相关判断。综合2个实验的结果表明,语义相关判断任务中被试会自动激活指代物的空间信息,并且其对空间信息的表征是知觉符号表征,而非表象表征。研究结果进一步支持了知觉符号理论。     

道德概念的空间形象性：语言因素和具身因素的共同作用

采用事件相关电位(ERP)技术探讨抽象道德概念的空间形象性效应, 以及语言因素和具身因素对该效应的影响机制及其加工进程。实验1检验词对空间位置对道德词对语义判断(反义程度)所产生的影响, 结果表明不符合空间形象性呈现条件(即道德-下, 不道德-上)诱发了较大的N400, 并且词对语义判断的反应时较长; 实验2检验词对语义的反义程度对道德词对空间形象性判断所产生的影响, 结果表明语义无关词对诱发了较大的N200和N700, 并且词对空间形象性判断的反应时较长。研究结果表明, 抽象道德概念的加工能够表现出空间形象性效应, 该效应由语言因素和具身因素共同塑造, 前者在概念加工过程中优先被激活并发挥持久影响, 后者仅在概念加工的中期发挥作用。     

空间语言标记影响亲属关系的容器隐喻

通过3个实验,考察空间语言标记——"内/外"对汉语亲属词语义加工中亲属关系性质容器隐喻的影响。实验1同时呈现词和圆圈,发现语言标记影响亲属词语义加工中的亲属关系性质容器隐喻,有"外"标记的血亲词出现在圈外比出现在圈内反应更快,有"内"标记的姻亲词出现在圈内比出现在圈外错误率更低。实验2先呈现亲属词再呈现圆圈,发现语言标记影响亲属关系性质向容器概念的激活,有"外"标记的血亲词和有"内"标记的姻亲词在字母呈现在容器内外时的反应时差异与无"外"标记的血亲词和无"内"标记的姻亲词相反。实验3先呈现圆圈再呈现亲属词,发现有语言标记的亲属词在空间位置与语言标记一致时反应时更短、错误率更高,说明"内–外"意象图式对亲属词判断的影响主要源于语言标记。整个研究表明,与亲属关系性质容器隐喻不一致的空间语言标记干扰汉语亲属词的语义加工,空间语言标记的作用比亲属关系性质容器隐喻更强。在汉语亲属词的语义加工中存在着序列分解的加工方式,被试先加工首字,再加工整词。汉语亲属词的语义加工中包含着语义加工与具身经验激活的相互作用。     

文化图式影响亲属词语义加工中的空间隐喻——来自汉族人和摩梭人的证据

采用亲属词判断任务,比较汉族人和摩梭人在亲属词的语义加工中的上下、左右、内外空间隐喻,揭示文化图式对亲属词语义加工中空间隐喻的影响。实验1表明,汉族人和摩梭人在亲属词的语义加工中均存在着上下隐喻一致性效应:高辈分亲属词呈现在屏幕的上方加工快,低辈分亲属词呈现在屏幕的下方加工快。实验2表明,摩梭人对呈现在屏幕右边的年幼平辈亲属词的加工比呈现在屏幕左边快,出现部分的左右隐喻一致性效应,汉族人对长、幼平辈亲属词的加工不受呈现位置影响。实验3表明,摩梭人对母系亲属词的加工显著快于对父系亲属词,汉族人对父系亲属词、母系亲属词的加工无显著差异。当父系亲属词呈现在圆圈中心和圆圈外时,摩梭人的反应显著慢于汉族人;当父系亲属词呈现在圆圈边缘时,两个民族的反应时差异不显著。当母系亲属词呈现在圆圈中心时,两个民族的反应时差异最大。整个研究表明,汉族人和摩梭人在对亲属词的语义加工中存在着空间隐喻一致性效应,但隐喻方式却受各自的文化图式影响,而且文化图式的变化引起亲属词的空间隐喻方式的变化,体现了人类认知的情境性和具身性。     

二语情绪概念理解中的空间隐喻

采用空间启动范式考察二语情绪概念理解中是否激活空间信息, 即是否存在空间隐喻。实验1探讨单通道二语情绪概念理解中的空间隐喻, 实验2则探讨跨通道二语情绪概念理解中的空间隐喻。实验1中让32名母语为汉语的汉-英双语者先看一个英文情绪词, 接着进行视觉空间位置判断, 最后再让被试判断之前呈现的情绪词是积极词还是消极词。实验2中40名母语为汉语的汉-英双语者完成跟实验1类似的任务, 不同之处为英文情绪词以听觉形式呈现。两个实验的结果表明, 跨语言和跨通道的情绪词的空间隐喻受到空间位置方向的影响。垂直位置方向上, 二语情绪词在单通道和跨通道中都表现出了空间隐喻; 水平位置方向上, 二语情绪词没有表现出空间隐喻。该结果说明了情绪概念的空间隐喻会受到个体经验的影响, 进一步支持了知觉符号理论。     

上下意象图式对羌族亲属词认知的影响

采用亲属词判断任务和真假词判断任务, 考查了“上下意象图式”对羌族被试认知隐含辈分关系的羌族亲属词的影响, 并通过空间识别任务检验亲属词辈份概念加工能否自动地激活空间意象图式, 引导空间注意朝向与空间意象图式一致的位置。实验1表明, 在羌族被试对羌族亲属词的认知中, 存在着“隐喻一致性效应”：高辈分的亲属词呈现在计算机屏幕的上方加工得更快, 低辈分的亲属词呈现在计算机屏幕的下方加工得更快。实验2表明, 当目标刺激的空间位置与亲属词的辈分信息一致时, 羌族被试对目标刺激的辨认速度更快。整个研究表明, 羌族亲属词隐含的辈分关系可以用垂直空间关系来理解, 并引导被试的空间注意朝向与上下意象图式一致的位置, 证明对抽象概念的理解基于感觉运动的加工, 符合概念隐喻理论的预言。     

时间隐喻在汉语时间量词语义加工中的作用

通过三个实验, 考察了时间隐喻在汉语时间量词语义加工中的作用。实验1表明, 当时间量词的水平方向隐喻(“长–短”)与字词的空间长度特征(“长–短”或“宽–窄”)不一致时, 语义加工受到了干扰; 实验2表明, 虽然“高–矮”亦为字词的空间特征, 但对时间量词的语义加工没有显著的影响, 证明时间的空间隐喻受讲话者的语言使用习惯影响; 实验3表明, 通过使用不同长度的背景降低了字形变化对于语义加工的影响之后, 与字形一致、隐喻不一致的条件比, 字形和隐喻皆不一致的条件引起了更大的干扰。整个研究表明, 汉语讲话者的时间隐喻只受空间的水平方向特征(“长–短”或“宽–窄”)影响, 不受空间的竖直方向特征(“高–矮”)影响。时间概念以空间长度特征为中介, 在长时记忆中与知觉符号同时储存。     

声音概念垂直空间隐喻表征的初步探讨

本文通过2个实验,初步探讨汉语声音概念词的垂直空间隐喻表征。实验1先视觉呈现声音概念词,要求被试对随后在屏幕上方或者下方呈现的图形进行形状判断;实验2要求被试先对声音词进行音高判断,再判断图形。结果只在实验2中发现隐喻表征,说明声音词的垂直空间隐喻表征需要一定的条件。后期问卷调查后发现,声音词普遍存在多种表象,且声音并不是首先激活的。意味着声音词的垂直空间隐喻表征需要较高的声音音高维度的语义凸显度,需对声音概念进行较深层次的语义加工,才可激活垂直空间隐喻表征。     

语言和情境对具体概念感知运动仿真的影响

具体概念加工中的感知运动仿真是概念表征的核心加工过程。本研究系统探讨了语言因素(语言类型：第一语言和第二语言)和情境因素(知觉情境：空间知觉情境和语义知觉情境)对具体概念加工中感知运动仿真的影响。实验1采用语义相关判断范式探讨了第二语言加工过程中是否存在感知运动仿真, 以及第二语言中的仿真和第一语言中的仿真是否存在差异。研究发现, 第二语言加工中依然存在感知运动仿真, 但是第一语言的感知运动仿真具有一定的优势。实验2采用语义相关判断范式及其变式, 通过2个分实验分别探讨了个体加工概念时空间知觉信息和语义知觉信息对于概念表征过程中感知运动仿真的影响。研究发现, 无论是在较弱的空间信息知觉条件下还是在较浅的语义信息知觉条件下, 具体概念加工过程中都产生了感知运动仿真。本研究的发现弥补了知觉符号理论未对第二语言中的感知运动仿真提出针对性预测的不足, 表明感知运动仿真具有一定的跨语言稳定性。同时, 具体概念加工中的感知运动仿真不受空间信息和语义信息的调节, 这表明感知运动仿真能在一定程度上自动化产生。     

空间隐喻和形状变化对物体内隐时间概念加工的影响

通过2个实验, 考察了空间隐喻和形状变化对物体内隐时间概念加工的影响。实验1通过对隐含时间关系的词对的语义相关判断发现, 形状变化物体隐含的“先前/后来”的时间概念与“左/右”的空间概念存在着对应关系, 断裂式变化(形状变化大)的物体比渐进式变化(形状变化小)的物体激发了更加明显的时间变化感, 但物体形状变化类型并未明显地影响对词对语义相关判断的速度和准确性。实验2通过对隐含时间关系的物体图片对的语义相关判断发现, 物体形状变化隐含的“先前/后来”的时间概念与“左/右”的空间概念亦存在着对应关系, 而且物体形状变化类型影响对物体图片对语义相关判断的速度和准确性, 被试对渐进式变化物体的语义相关判断显著快于对断裂式变化物体的语义相关判断, 错误率亦低。整个研究表明, 在物体形状变化内隐时间概念的表征中, 既存在着抽象的符号表征, 又存在着具体的形状知觉表征。研究结果支持概念双加工理论的预言。     

Spatial iconicity affects semantic relatedness judgments

Three experiments were conducted to examine whether spatial iconicity affects semantic-relatedness judgments. Subjects made speeded decisions with regard to whether members of a simultaneously presented word pair were semantically related. In Experiment 1, the words were presented one above the other. In the experimental pair, the words denoted parts of larger objects (e.g., ATTIC-BASEMENT). The words were either in an iconic relation with their referents (e.g., ATTIC presented above BASEMENT) or in a reverse-iconic relation (BASEMENT above ATTIC). The reverse-iconic condition yielded significantly slower semantic-relatedness judgments than did the iconic condition. Experiments 2 and 3 showed that this effect did not occur when the words were presented horizontally, thus ruling out that the iconicity effect is due to the order in which the words are read. Two alternative explanations for this finding are discussed.     

The linguistic and embodied nature of conceptual processing

Recent theories of cognition have argued that embodied experience is important for conceptual processing. Embodiment can be contrasted with linguistic factors such as the typical order in which words appear in language. Here, we report four experiments that investigated the conditions under which embodiment and linguistic factors determine performance. Participants made speeded judgments about whether pairs of words or pictures were semantically related or had an iconic relationship. The embodiment factor was operationalized as the degree to which stimulus pairs were presented in the spatial configurations in which they usually occur (i.e., an iconic configuration, e.g., attic presented above basement). The linguistic factor was operationalized as the frequency of the stimulus pairs in language. The embodiment factor predicted error rates and response time better for pictures, whereas the linguistic factor predicted error rates and response time better for words. These findings were modified by task, with the embodiment factor being strongest in iconicity judgments for pictures and the linguistic factor being strongest in semantic judgments for words. Both factors predicted error rates and response time for both semantic and iconicity judgments. These findings support the view that conceptual processing is both linguistic and embodied, with a bias for the embodiment or the linguistic factor depending on the nature of the task and the stimuli.     

Hemispheric differences in semantic-relatedness judgments

Subjects judged the semantic relatedness of word pairs presented to the left or right visual field. The word pairs were presented one below the other. On critical trials, the words' referents had a typical spatial relation, with one referent oriented above the other (e.g. ATTIC/BASEMENT). The spatial relation of the words either matched or mismatched the spatial relation of their referents. When presented to the left hemisphere, the match or mismatch did not have an effect. However, there was a reliable mismatch effect for pairs presented to the right hemisphere. The results are interpreted in the context of perceptual theories of mental representation.     

Embodied grounding of memory: Toward the effects of motor execution on memory consolidation

Behavioural and neuroscientific research has provided evidence for a strong functional link between the neural motor system and lexical–semantic processing of action-related language. It remains unclear, however, whether the impact of motor actions is restricted to online language comprehension or whether sensorimotor codes are also important in the formation and consolidation of persisting memory representations of the word's referents. The current study now demonstrates that recognition performance for action words is modulated by motor actions performed during the retention interval. Specifically, participants were required to learn words denoting objects that were associated with either a pressing or a twisting action (e.g., piano, screwdriver) and words that were not associated to actions. During a 6–8-minute retention phase, participants performed an intervening task that required the execution of pressing or twisting responses. A subsequent recognition task revealed a better memory for words that denoted objects for which the functional use was congruent with the action performed during the retention interval (e.g., pepper mill–twisting action, doorbell–pressing action) than for words that denoted objects for which the functional use was incongruent. In further experiments, we were able to generalize this effect of selective memory enhancement of words by performing congruent motor actions to an implicit perceptual (Experiment 2) and implicit semantic memory test (Experiment 3). Our findings suggest that a reactivation of motor codes affects the process of memory consolidation and emphasizes therefore the important role of sensorimotor codes in establishing enduring semantic representations.     

Imagery in the congenitally blind: how visual are visual images?

Three experiments compared congenitally blind and sighted adults and children on tasks presumed to involve visual imagery in memory. In all three, the blind subjects' performances were remarkably similar to the sighted. The first two experiments examined Paivio's (1971) modality-specific imagery hypothesis. Experiment 1 used a paired-associate task with words whose referents were high in either visual or auditory imagery. The blind, like the sighted, recalled more high-visual-imagery pairs than any others. Experiment 2 used a free-recall task for words grouped according to modality-specific attributes, such as color and sound. The blind performed as well as the sighted on words grouped by color. In fact, the only consistent deficit in both experiments occurred for the sighted in recall of words whose referents are primarily auditory. These results challenge Paivio's theory and suggest either (a) that the visual imagery used by the sighted is no more facilitating than the abstract semantic representations used by the blind or (b) that the sighted are not using visual imagery. Experiment 3 used Neisser and Kerr's (1973) imaging task. Subjects formed images of scenes in which target objects were described as either visible in the picture plane or concealed by another object and thus not visible. On an incidental recall test for the target objects, the blind, like the sighted, recalled more pictorial than concealed targets. This finding suggests that the haptic images of the blind maintain occlusion just as the visual images of the sighted do.     

Spatial representations elicit dual-coding effects in mental imagery

Spatial aspects of words are associated with their canonical locations in the real world. Yet little research has tested whether spatial associations denoted in language comprehension generalize to their corresponding images. We directly tested the spatial aspects of mental imagery in picture and word processing (Experiment 1). We also tested whether spatial representations of motion words produce similar perceptual-interference effects as demonstrated by object words (Experiment 2). Findings revealed that words denoting an upward spatial location produced slower responses to targets appearing at the top of the display, whereas words denoting a downward spatial location produced slower responses to targets appearing at the bottom of the display. Perceptual-interference effects did not obtain for pictures or for words lacking a spatial relation. These findings provide greater empirical support for the perceptual-symbols system theory ( Barsalou, 1999, 2008 ).     

The role of spurious feature familiarity in recognition memory

In two experiments, we investigated the role of perceptual information in spurious recognition judgments. Participants viewed lists of words in various unusual fonts. The frequency with which each font was presented was manipulated at study: Each font was presented with 1 or 12 different words in Experiment 1 and with 1 or 20 words in Experiment 2. Although the participants were instructed in a word recognition test to judge only on the basis of the word, regardless of font, there were significantly more false alarms for new words seen in a previously presented font than for new words presented in a novel (not seen at study) font in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, the participants were significantly more likely to make a false alarm to a new word seen in a font that had been used to present 20 words during study than to a font that had been used to present only 1 word during study. The data show a mirror effect, in which words tested in low-frequency fonts produced more hits and fewer false alarms than did words tested in high-frequency fonts. These results show that irrelevant perceptual information plays a role in recognition judgments by providing spurious sources of familiarity and, thus, provide evidence that perceptual information is represented and processed in the same way as semantic information.     

Decision strategies and visual-field asymmetries in same-different judgments of word meaning

The accuracy with which observers judged whether two words belonged to the same semantic category was determined from a detection-theoretic analysis ofsame-different judgments. In Experiment 1, one word was presented centrally and the other word in either the left visual field (LVF) or the right visual field (RVF); in Experiment 2, both words were presented to either the LVF or the RVF. In order to obtain receiver-operating characteristics (ROCs) of performance, observers were asked to rate their confidence that the two words belonged to the same semantic category. Two models of the decision strategy were fitted to the obtained characteristics: a differencing model, in which the decision variable was the difference between the two observations; and an optimal model, in which each observation was judged in relation to a criterion. In both experiments, the optimal model provided a better fit than the differencing model to the obtained characteristics. Maximum-likelihood estimates of both the criterion-free parameter,d′, and the area under the operating characteristic,p(A), were greater for words presented in the RVF than for those presented in the LVF.     

Linking sounds to meanings: Infant statistical learning in a natural language

The processes of infant word segmentation and infant word learning have largely been studied separately. However, the ease with which potential word forms are segmented from fluent speech seems likely to influence subsequent mappings between words and their referents. To explore this process, we tested the link between the statistical coherence of sequences presented in fluent speech and infants’ subsequent use of those sequences as labels for novel objects. Notably, the materials were drawn from a natural language unfamiliar to the infants (Italian). The results of three experiments suggest that there is a close relationship between the statistics of the speech stream and subsequent mapping of labels to referents. Mapping was facilitated when the labels contained high transitional probabilities in the forward and/or backward direction (Experiment 1). When no transitional probability information was available (Experiment 2), or when the internal transitional probabilities of the labels were low in both directions (Experiment 3), infants failed to link the labels to their referents. Word learning appears to be strongly influenced by infants’ prior experience with the distribution of sounds that make up words in natural languages.