发音动作和声音在产生效应中的作用：基于fNIRS的研究

产生效应指朗读的记忆成绩好于默读的,然而目前还不清楚发音动作和声音在其中的作用。本研究采用fNIRS技术,考察大学生朗读、唇读、默读三种阅读方式时的记忆成绩和大脑激活模式。结果发现：（1）朗读和唇读的记忆成绩显著高于默读的;（2）朗读和唇读时在初级运动皮层、布洛卡区和威尔尼克区的激活程度均显著大于默读时的;（3）朗读时在威尔尼克区的激活程度显著大于唇读时的。这表明,发音动作相对声音在产生效应中的作用更大。     

阅读方式和学习次数对中文词汇的产生效应的影响

产生效应是指朗读单词的记忆成绩要好于默读单词的。目前存在特异观和强度观两种理论解释,特异观强调朗读的相对特殊性,强度观强调朗读单词的编码强度高于默读单词的。为了检验两种理论,本研究采用“学习-再认”的实验范式,将阅读方式分别设置为被试内和被试间变量,通过两项实验考察阅读方式和学习次数对中文词汇的产生效应的影响。实验1采用被试内设计考察阅读方式和学习次数对产生效应的影响。结果发现阅读方式和学习次数的主效应显著,二者的交互作用不显著。实验2将阅读方式设置为被试间变量,采用混合设计考察阅读方式和学习次数对产生效应的影响。结果发现学习次数的主效应显著,阅读方式的主效应和二者的交互作用不显著。结果表明产生效应未随着项目编码强度的增强而增强,支持特异观。     

小学儿童英语正字法技能的发展及其在单词阅读中的作用

为系统探讨正字法技能不同成分的发展特点及其在英语单词阅读中的作用,对小学一、三、五年级共110名儿童施测英语正字法规则意识、正字法模式建构技能、正字法编码技能、单词阅读以及一般认知能力和英语语音意识测验。结果表明：（1）汉语儿童的英语正字法技能各成分随年级显著增长,各成分间及其与一般认知技能、语音意识的关系存在年级差异;（2）控制年龄、一般认知能力和语音意识后,正字法技能在三、五年级仍对单词阅读有显著的独立解释作用,且其独立贡献率高于语音意识;（3）进一步控制其他正字法技能成分后,正字法规则意识以正字法模式建构技能为完全中介间接地作用于单词阅读,正字法模式建构技能在三、五年级都仍对单词阅读有显著的独立解释作用,正字法编码技能在五年级中能显著地独立解释单词阅读的部分变异。     

阅读模式对汉语儿童阅读理解的影响：有中介的调节模型

为探讨年级在汉语儿童阅读模式影响阅读理解过程中的作用及其内部机制，对933名小学2～6年级儿童在不同阅读模式(朗读、喃喃自语、默读)下的阅读理解进行测查，并采用三分钟阅读测验考察儿童的阅读流畅性，探讨其在上述调节模型中的中介作用。结果发现：(1)喃喃自语比默读更有利于小学汉语儿童的阅读理解；(2)年级在阅读模式对阅读理解的影响中起调节作用。二年级儿童朗读和喃喃自语时的阅读理解成绩高于默读；喃喃自语比默读更有利于四年级儿童的阅读理解；五年级时，喃喃自语成为绝对优势，好于朗读和默读；(3)年级的调节作用部分通过阅读流畅性这一中介变量而实现。研究结果在一定程度上验证和补充了维果茨基内化说在阅读发展中的应用，启示不应盲目纠正儿童自然的阅读模式(如阅读中的喃喃自语)。此外，重视儿童阅读流畅性的训练可能有助于促进儿童阅读的内化进程。     

关键字母法对中国学习不良儿童英语词汇记忆的作用

关键字母法是将西方世界著名的关键词方法的原理同汉字特点相结合的产物。以39名普通初一学生为控制组,以21名学习不良的小学五年级学生为实验组,以64个罕见的英文单词作为记忆测验材料,考察了关键字母法对于中国儿童英语词汇记忆的作用。该研究最重要的结果是,在关键字母法干预实验前,作为实验组的小学五年级被试的英语词汇记忆成绩显著地低于作为控制组的初一学生的记忆成绩,然而,在关键字母法干预实验后,前后两者的英语词汇记忆成绩不存在显著的差异。     

汉语儿童语素意识对阅读理解的影响:默读流畅性的中介效应

通过对149名小学一年级学生两年的追踪研究,在控制了一般认知能力、语音意识以及所关注变量自回归效应的情况下,探讨默读流畅性在语素意识与阅读理解关系中的作用。结果发现：（1）儿童语素意识、默读流畅性及阅读理解随时间均有显著发展;（2）一年级下学期儿童的默读流畅性在一年级上学期语素意识影响二年级上学期阅读理解过程中的中介作用显著,而二年级上学期的默读流畅性在一年级下学期语素意识影响二年级下学期阅读理解过程中的中介作用不显著。结果表明,在小学低年级阶段,默读流畅性在早期语素意识与之后的阅读理解中发挥跨时间点的中介作用,且该中介效应随儿童认知技能的发展会发生一定的变化。     

词频与阅读方式对词跨行呈现效应的影响

通过使用眼动追踪技术,采用2（呈现条件：同行呈现、跨行呈现）×2（词频：高频、低频）×2（阅读方式：朗读、默读）的被试内实验设计,探讨了词频和阅读方式对词跨行呈现效应的影响。结果发现,呈现条件、词频和阅读方式的主效应显著,跨行呈现、低频和朗读的凝视时间和总注视时间更长、总注视次数更多;呈现条件之间在凝视时间上的差异,高频词大于低频词;呈现条件之间在凝视时间和总注视次数上的差异,朗读大于默读。结果表明,词跨行呈现干扰了阅读,且这种干扰作用受词频和阅读方式的影响。     

中小学生字词再认中场合效应的发展研究

以223名小五、初二、高二学生为被试,探讨对学习项目的加工水平与再认中场合效应的关系以及这种关系的年龄特征。结果表明:(1)当对学习项目进行深加工时,场合因素对三个年级再认效果的影响没有表现出年龄趋势;当对学习项目进行浅加工时,场合因素对小学五年级再认效果的影响显著高于对初二、高二年级的影响,而初二、高二年级的差异不显著;(2)小学五年级学生再认中的场合效应与掩蔽模型的假设一致,初二、高二年级学生的场合效应与加和整体匹配模型的假设一致。     

亲子沟通与农村青少年幸福感的关系：基本心理需要满足的中介作用

采用亲子沟通量表、基本心理需要满足量表和牛津幸福感问卷对广西四所农村中小学的1164名学生进行测量。结果表明：（1）农村青少年的基本心理需要满足、幸福感在不同性别、年级和SES上没有显著差异,但亲子沟通存在年级和性别交互作用差异,即五年级和初一女生与父亲的沟通质量显著高于初二女生,对男生而言则此差异不显著;（2）农村青少年的父子沟通、母子沟通与自主、胜任和关系三大基本心理需要满足及其幸福感均呈显著正相关;（3）亲子沟通不仅对农村青少年幸福感有直接预测作用,而且还会通过自主、胜任和关系三种基本心理需要满足的中介对农村青少年幸福感产生间接作用,其中关系需要满足的中介效应最大。     

中学生师生关系的结构、类型及其发展特点

选取319名初一至高三学生作为被试,主要采用问卷法,考察中学生师生关系的结构、类型及其发展特点。结果表明：（1）师生关系结构具有冲突性、依恋性、亲密性和回避性四个维度;（2）师生关系类型包括矛盾冲突型、亲密和谐型和疏远平淡型三种类型;（3）师生关系各维度不存在显著性别差异,但存在显著年级差异,师生关系质量随年级升高呈波浪式下降趋势,初一学生的师生关系最好,初二和高二学生的师生关系最不理想;（4）师生关系各类型的人数比例存在显著年级差异。     

Remembered study mode: Support for the distinctiveness account of the production effect

The production effect is the finding that words spoken aloud at study are subsequently remembered better than are words read silently at study. According to the distinctiveness account, aloud words are remembered better because the act of speaking those words aloud is encoded and later recovery of this information can be used to infer that those words were studied. An alternative account (the strength-based account) is that memory strength is simply greater for words read aloud. To discriminate these two accounts, we investigated study mode judgements (i.e., “aloud”/”silent”/”new” ratings): The strength-based account predicts that “aloud” responses should positively correlate with memory strength, whereas the distinctiveness account predicts that accuracy of study mode judgements will be independent of memory strength. Across three experiments, where the strength of some silent words was increased by repetition, study mode was discriminable regardless of strength—even when the strength of aloud and repeated silent items was equivalent. Consistent with the distinctiveness account, we conclude that memory for “aloudness” is independent of memory strength and a likely candidate to explain the production effect.     

Assessing the costs and benefits of production in recognition

The production effect is a memory advantage for items studied aloud over items studied silently. Although it typically is found within subjects, here we also obtained it between subjects in a recognition task—providing new evidence that production can be an effective study strategy. Our experiment, and a set of meta-analyses, also evaluated whether the within effect reflects costs to silent items and/or benefits to aloud items. Contrary to a strong distinctiveness account, we found little evidence that aloud items show an additional within-subjects benefit. Instead, silent items suffered an additional within-subjects cost. Blocking silent and aloud items eliminated this cost, suggesting that the cost was due to mixing silent and aloud items. Our discussion focuses on implications for distinctiveness and strength accounts of the production effect and on how to implement production as an encoding strategy depending on the learner’s goals.     

Predicting memory benefits in the production effect: the use and misuse of self-generated distinctive cues when making judgments of learning

The production effect occurs when reading a word aloud leads to better memory for the item, relative to words that are read silently. In the present study, we assessed the degree to which judgments of learning (JOLs) are sensitive to the production effect, to determine whether people are aware of how distinctive cues can enhance memory. If the act of saying a word aloud is used as a cue for later memorability, then JOLs should be sensitive to production. Experiment 1 demonstrated that this was the case, as participants provided higher JOLs for produced items than for those read silently. This pattern of JOLs was also evident when participants silently mouthed words (Exp. 2). In Experiment 3, participants instead made a nonunique response as the production component (saying “yes” instead of the word itself). JOLs were still higher under production, although memory performance did not differ from that in a silent condition. The results suggest that the presence of both specific and nonspecific self-generated cues is used to make metacognitive judgments, likely due to the high accessibility of this information, but that participants are not precisely aware of how distinctiveness enhances encoding and retrieval. Such findings have implications for how distinctiveness is perceived by learners and for what cues would appropriately be incorporated when predicting future memory performance.     

Widening the boundaries of the production effect

Words that are read aloud are more memorable than words that are read silently. The boundaries of this production effect (MacLeod, Gopie, Hourihan, Neary, & Ozubko, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 671-685, 2010) have been found to extend beyond speech. MacLeod and colleagues demonstrated that mouthing also facilitates memory, leading them to speculate that any distinct, item-specific response should result in a production effect. In Experiment 1, we found support for this conjecture: Relative to silent reading, three unique productions-spelling, writing, and typing-all boosted explicit memory. In Experiment 2, we tested the sensitivity of the production effect. Although mouthing, writing, and whispering all improved explicit memory when compared to silent reading, these other production modalities were not as beneficial as speech. We argue that the enhanced distinctiveness of speech relative to other productions-and of other productions relative to silent reading-underlies this pattern of results.     

Auditioning the distinctiveness account: Expanding the production effect to the auditory modality reveals the superiority of writing over vocalising

The production effect (PE) documents the advantage in memory performance for words that are read aloud during study, rather than words that are read silently. Until now, the PE was examined in the visual modality, as the participants read the study words. In the present study, we extended the PE phenomenon and used the auditory modality at study. This novel methodology provides a critical test of the distinctiveness account. Accordingly, the participants heard the study words and learned them by vocal production (saying aloud) or by writing, followed by a free recall test. The use of the auditory modality yielded a memory advantage for words that were written during study over words that were vocally produced. We explain this result in light of the encoding distinctiveness account, suggesting that the PE is determined by the number of different encoding processes involved in learning, emphasising the essential role of active production.     

Effects of Different Listening-While-Reading Rates on Comprehension in Secondary Students with Reading Deficits

Abstract

Effects of instructing students to read silently as another person reads aloud (listening-while-reading) on comprehension in secondary students with learning disabilities were examined. Two separate treatment conditions were implemented. During student rate listening-while-reading, (SLWR), experimenters read aloud at rates that approximated each student's oral reading rate. During fast rate listening-while-reading, (FLWR), experimenters increased their reading rates. A silent reading (SR) control condition was also implemented. Following each intervention the students answered five literal and five inferential questions. SLWR resulted in lower inferential accuracy than FLWR and SR. Discussion focuses on future research and implications for accommodating secondary students with reading skills deficits in general education classrooms.     

Recognition and recall performance both benefit from the production effect with content-specific information

Two experiments assessed how reading aloud versus reading silently would benefit recognition and recall performance of content-specific vocabulary (i.e., the production effect). Participants studied 30 terms from an American history curriculum by reading half of the vocabulary aloud, while the remaining words were read silently. After a brief distractor task, they completed a recognition memory test (Experiment 1) or a recall memory test (Experiment 2). Both experiments revealed a benefit for reading aloud. Recognition performance showed a 22% performance advantage, while recall performance showed a smaller advantage for the words read aloud (8% benefit). The vast majority of participants in both experiments showed a memory advantage for those words that were studied aloud versus those read silently (88% of participants in Experiment 1 and 67% of individuals in Experiment 2). Implications for educational settings are considered.

Attempts to improve student performance have been manifested in various forms; however, recent developments in cognitive psychology have a great deal to offer educators and students regarding instruction and learning. Studies suggest that educators and cognitive psychologists ought to approach educational research as an interdisciplinary endeavor. Through this collaborative relationship, those who teach could improve their understanding of the science of learning, while researchers extend theoretical research to practical, classroom applications for the benefit of students and teachers.