反向眼跳的实验范式、机制及影响因素

反向眼跳任务是研究内源性眼跳的主要方法。1978年,Hallett在研究中首次使用了反向眼跳的实验任务。实验中要求被试抑制对外围目标的注视,并注视它的相反位置。反向眼跳任务是研究行为控制以及注意功能的有效范式。目前认为反向眼跳任务中的朝向眼跳和反向眼跳计划是同时加工并相互竞争的,并且反向眼跳的产生与额顶叶皮层下组织有关。反向眼跳会受到多种因素的影响,例如,空白效应、工作记忆、认知老化、目标离心率等。     

自主控制眼跳：实验范式、神经机制和应用

自主控制眼跳是眼跳类型之一。自主控制眼跳实验范式为研究各种脑损伤,神经疾病和精神失调提供了一种新的研究手段,为研究眼跳的神经机制以及反应抑制、空间工作记忆等高级认知功能提供了重要的方法。文章介绍了自主控制眼跳的两种实验范式：反向眼跳和记忆导向眼跳,阐述了自主控制眼跳的神经机制及其实验范式的应用,指出自主控制眼跳实验范式为评定精神分裂症等脑功能失调病人的神经功能状态提供了重要的信息,为研究各种脑功能失调和精神疾病提供了重要的研究方法。今后的研究趋势是眼跳研究与神经成像技术和临床观察相结合     

任务指导语及实验范式对朝向和反向眼跳的影响

采用2（眼跳方向）×3（实验范式）×4（任务指导语）的完全被试内实验设计研究任务指导语和实验范式对朝向和反向眼跳的影响效应。结果：（1）朝向眼跳潜伏期显著快于反向眼跳,且不受实验范式的影响;（2）在朝向眼跳任务中,空白范式下的延迟型指导语导致眼跳潜伏期延长;（3）在反向眼跳任务中,空白和重叠范式下延迟型指导语潜伏期最长;零范式下速度型指导语的潜伏期较短;（4）空白范式下的反向眼跳错误率显著低于重叠范式和零范式,反向眼跳潜伏期显著短于后两种范式。实验结果支持眼跳竞争模型。     

眼跳任务中的偏心距效应

采用完全被试内设计,控制了眼跳任务类型(朝向眼跳、反向眼跳)和目标偏心距水平,考察了大学生在两种眼跳任务中的偏心距效应,即目标刺激相对于屏幕中心的距离对于眼跳过程的影响.研究结果发现:(1)反向眼跳任务中的首次眼跳方向错误率显著高于朝向眼跳,眼跳潜伏期也显著较长.(2)在朝向和反向眼跳过程中,都出现了目标的偏心距效应,即随着目标偏心距的增大,眼跳潜伏期缩短,眼跳落点视角增大.     

成人注意缺陷多动障碍在内外源冲突时的表现:眼动的证据

在注意定向与维持上,注意缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)个体更容易受到外部刺激的干扰而导致目标任务加工进程受阻,表现出了注意定向反应的缺陷,但导致任务失败的原因是由于对突然出现的外部无关刺激的过度兴奋还是对内源性目标刺激的持续维持能力减弱,尚不清楚。研究采用反向眼跳范式、记忆导向眼跳范式和视觉导向眼跳范式,来探索成人ADHD内外源注意定向反应的情况,以及当二者发生冲突时,成人ADHD失败的可能机制。结果发现,在反向眼跳任务上,成人注意缺陷多动障碍组错误率更高,并且差异性显著。但在记忆导向眼跳任务中,成人注意缺陷多动障碍组与正常组的差异不显著。在视觉导向眼跳任务中,成人注意缺陷多动障碍组的正确眼跳潜伏期比正常组要短,且二者之间的差异显著。这说明,在内外源刺激反应的冲突导致的情境中,成人注意缺陷多动障碍的反应明显落后于正常个体,这种缺陷并非由于其维持内源性注意产生定向反应落后所导致的,而是与其外源注意定向反应过强有关。     

内隐序列学习表征机制探究：眼动证据

内隐序列学习的表征机制是内隐学习研究领域的基本问题, 还存在争议。采用眼动追踪技术, 通过3个实验探讨内隐序列学习的表征机制。结果发现, 知觉序列混合眼跳和反应序列混合眼跳条件下发生序列学习; 朝向眼跳和反向眼跳条件下发生序列学习; 有、无分心反向眼跳下发生序列学习, 两者序列学习量差异不显著。整个研究表明, 内隐序列学习的表征依赖于序列信息。     

客体工作记忆对注意的导向作用：抑制动机的影响

通过两个实验验证了客体工作记忆内容对注意的导向过程是灵活可控的; 与客体工作记忆内容匹配的刺激既可以捕获注意, 也可以被抑制。实验1通过操作匹配试验概率来诱发不同水平的抑制动机, 考察在客体工作记忆内容对注意的导向作用中抑制动机的影响。匹配试验中有分心物与客体工作记忆内容相同。控制试验中所有搜索项目均与客体工作记忆内容不同。实验2保持实际匹配试验概率恒定, 仅通过改变指导语来调节抑制动机水平, 以排除练习的干扰。两实验结果均表明, 当抑制动机水平较低时, 匹配分心物会捕获注意; 而当抑制动机水平足够高时, 匹配分心物会被抑制。并且, 抑制动机水平的高低还会影响认知控制的效应量和时程。     

奖励和惩罚在注意控制过程中的优化和分离：眼动研究

通过两个眼动实验考察金钱奖励和惩罚引起的动机对个体在不同空间线索条件下注意控制加工的影响。实验1采用朝向/反向眼跳范式, 被试通过内源性线索提供心理准备的情况下做出简单的朝向眼跳以及需要抑制优势反应的反向眼跳。结果发现, 相比无奖惩条件, 奖励条件下朝向眼跳任务的正确率更高, 惩罚条件下反向眼跳任务的正确率更高; 两种眼跳任务中有奖惩条件下的眼跳峰速度均比无奖惩条件高。实验2采用Go/No-go任务, 进一步探讨了由副中央凹加工外源性边缘线索从而不能提供充分心理准备的情况下奖励和惩罚对注意控制的影响。结果发现, 奖励条件下Go反应的眼跳潜伏期更短, 惩罚条件下No-go反应正确率更高, 眼跳峰速度在两种条件下均比无奖惩条件高。以上结果表明, 奖励和惩罚均能够促进个体的注意控制, 但二者的加工过程是分离的, 奖励能够改善趋近行为, 惩罚则能够显著促进抑制控制行为, 且奖励和惩罚在注意控制加工过程中具有不同的作用模式, 奖励能够更早唤醒注意控制系统从而更快地促进行为的发生与执行, 惩罚则能够通过调节注意资源促进以目标为导向的行为中对优势反应的抑制。     

工作记忆与选择性注意的交互关系

综述了近年来工作记忆和选择性注意交互关系的一系列研究。研究者们主要从两个方面对该领域的问题进行了探讨：（1）工作记忆在选择性注意中的作用,主要涉及工作记忆的内容在选择性注意的注意导向中的作用、在晚期反应选择中的作用以及在视觉搜索和返回抑制中的作用等方面;（2）选择性注意在工作记忆的信息维持和更新中的作用,主要涉及空间注意在空间工作记忆的复述机制中的作用、注意的分心物加工机制对工作记忆的影响以及在记忆表征中的选择性注意等方面     

气质与眼动控制的关系

本研究采用眼动追踪和问卷测量相结合的方法,对气质类型和眼动控制的关系进行了探讨。眼动实验为2（眼跳方向：朝向眼跳和反向眼跳）X 2（任务类型：重复眼跳和转换眼跳）组内设计;气质分数用陈会昌编制的《气质类型测试量表》测量。结果表明,气质分数与眼动特性之间存在显著的相关性,不同气质类型（神经活动类型）在抑制过程和任务重置过程中表现出不同的相互作用模式。具体而言,神经活动强度是一个基本维度,它与认知控制的抑制功能和转换功能都有着密切联系;而神经活动的灵活性和平衡性则分别是转换功能和抑制功能的重要条件。     

Cognitive control of saccadic eye movements

The saccadic eye movement system provides researchers with a powerful tool with which to explore the cognitive control of behaviour. It is a behavioural system whose limited output can be measured with exceptional precision, and whose input can be controlled and manipulated in subtle ways. A range of cognitive processes (notably those involved in working memory and attention) have been shown to influence saccade parameters. Researchers interested in the relationship between cognitive function and psychiatric disorders have made extensive use of saccadic eye movement tasks to draw inferences as to the cognitive deficits associated with particular psychopathologies. The purpose of this review is to provide researchers with an overview of the research literature documenting cognitive involvement in saccadic tasks in healthy controls. An appreciation of this literature provides a solid background against which to interpret the deficits on saccadic tasks demonstrated in patient populations.     

Cognitive control of saccadic eye movements

The saccadic eye movement system provides researchers with a powerful tool with which to explore the cognitive control of behaviour. It is a behavioural system whose limited output can be measured with exceptional precision, and whose input can be controlled and manipulated in subtle ways. A range of cognitive processes (notably those involved in working memory and attention) have been shown to influence saccade parameters. Researchers interested in the relationship between cognitive function and psychiatric disorders have made extensive use of saccadic eye movement tasks to draw inferences as to the cognitive deficits associated with particular psychopathologies. The purpose of this review is to provide researchers with an overview of the research literature documenting cognitive involvement in saccadic tasks in healthy controls. An appreciation of this literature provides a solid background against which to interpret the deficits on saccadic tasks demonstrated in patient populations.     

Remembering a location makes the eyes curve away

Working memory is a system that keeps limited information on-line for immediate access by cognitive processes. This type of active maintenance is important for everyday life activities. The present study shows that maintaining a location in spatial working memory affects the trajectories of saccadic eye movements toward visual targets, as the eyes deviate away from the remembered location. This finding provides direct evidence for a strong overlap between spatial working memory and the eye movement system. We argue that curvature is the result of the need to inhibit memory-based eye movement activity in the superior colliculus, in order to allow an accurate saccade to the visual target. Whereas previous research has shown that the eyes may deviate away from visually presented stimuli that need to be ignored, we show that the eyes also curve away from remembered stimuli.     

Development of eye-movement control

Cognitive control of behavior continues to improve through adolescence in parallel with important brain maturational processes including synaptic pruning and myelination, which allow for efficient neuronal computations and the functional integration of widely distributed circuitries supporting top-down control of behavior. This is also a time when psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia and mood disorders, emerge reflecting a particularly vulnerability to impairments in development during adolescence. Oculomotor studies provide a unique neuroscientific approach to make precise associations between cognitive control and brain circuitry during development that can inform us of impaired systems in psychopathology. In this review, we first describe the development of pursuit, fixation, and visually-guided saccadic eye movements, which collectively indicate early maturation of basic sensorimotor processes supporting reflexive, exogenously-driven eye movements. We then describe the literature on the development of the cognitive control of eye movements as reflected in the ability to inhibit a prepotent eye movement in the antisaccade task, as well as making an eye movement guided by on-line spatial information in working memory in the oculomotor delayed response task. Results indicate that the ability to make eye movements in a voluntary fashion driven by endogenous plans shows a protracted development into adolescence. Characterizing the transition through adolescence to adult-level cognitive control of behavior can inform models aimed at understanding the neurodevelopmental basis of psychiatric disorders.     

Inhibition of saccadic eye movements to locations in spatial working memory

Inhibition of return (IOR) refers to a bias against overt and covert attentional orienting toward previously attended locations. According to the reorienting hypothesis, IOR is generated when attention is withdrawn from the attended location and is prevented from “returning” to it. The present study investigated whether maintenance of attention at the cued location could affect the inhibition of oculomotor orienting to it. To preclude disengagement of attention, we asked participants to maintain the cued location in working memory. Maintenance of visuospatial information in memory has been shown to be accomplished through a sustained shift of spatial attention to a memorized location. Our results show that oculomotor IOR occurs at a particular location even when that location is kept in working memory (Experiment 1). Furthermore, we demonstrate that the mere act of maintenance of a location in working memory produces oculomotor inhibition similar to IOR (Experiments 2 and 3). We conclude that the oculomotor system is used for coding and maintaining locations in spatial working memory. In addition, we demonstrate that endogenous attention associated with maintenance of a location in working memory can be dissociated from the attention needed for execution of a saccadic eye movement.     

High working memory load leads to more Ebbinghaus illusion

The evidence that distractor processing increases with greater load on working memory has come mainly from Stroop-type interference tasks, making it difficult to establish whether cognitive load affects distractor processing at the perceptual level or during response selection. We measured the Ebbinghaus illusion under varying levels of working memory load to test whether cognitive control is also relevant for preventing processing of distractors that do not produce any response conflict, and instead affect target processing at the perceptual level. The Ebbinghaus illusion was greater under high working memory load, suggesting that availability of cognitive control functions is critical to reduce distractor processing even for distractors that are not associated with a response. We conclude that the effect of loading working memory during selective attention leads to greater distractor perception.     

无关工作记忆表征的负性情绪信息能否捕获视觉注意?一项眼动研究

研究通过分析视觉搜索任务的首次注视点和行为反应时, 探讨无关工作记忆表征的负性情绪信息对视觉注意选择的影响。实验1发现在反映早期注意选择的首次注视点百分率指标上, 不管工作记忆表征的情绪效价如何, 均出现了显著的注意捕获效应; 实验2发现当采用中性情绪靶子刺激时, 首次注视点百分率指标上仍表现出了稳健的注意捕获效应; 在首次注视点持续时间指标上, 实验1和实验2均发现记忆匹配条件的干扰刺激显著小于控制条件的干扰刺激, 表现出注意的快速脱离; 而在行为反应时指标上, 早期的注意捕获效应消失(实验1), 甚至被反转为注意抑制效应(实验2)。这些结果表明在早期注意选择阶段, 记忆驱动的注意捕获效应不受工作记忆表征情绪效价的影响, 但认知控制会在早期注意捕获之后促使注意快速脱离记忆匹配的干扰刺激, 其作用效果受靶子刺激情绪效价的调节。     

Why do we move our eyes while trying to remember? The relationship between non-visual gaze patterns and memory

Non-visual gaze patterns (NVGPs) involve saccades and fixations that spontaneously occur in cognitive activities that are not ostensibly visual. While reasons for their appearance remain obscure, convergent empirical evidence suggests that NVGPs change according to processing requirements of tasks. We examined NVPGs in tasks with long-term memory (LTM) and working memory (WM) requirements. Experiment 1 yielded significantly higher eye movement rate (EMR) in tasks requiring LTM search than in a WM task requiring maintenance of information. Experiment 2 manipulated accessibility of items in study-test episodic tasks using the levels of processing paradigm. EMR was high in episodic recall irrespective of item accessibility. Experiment 3 examined functional significance of saccades in LTM tasks. Voluntary saccadic suppression produced no evidence that saccades contribute to task performance. We discuss the apparent epiphenomenal nature of spontaneous saccades from an evolutionary perspective and outline a neuroanatomical model of the link between the saccadic and memory system.     

Looking for answers: eye movements in non-visual cognitive tasks

It is not known why people move their eyes when engaged in non-visual cognition. The current study tested the hypothesis that differences in saccadic eye movement rate (EMR) during non-visual cognitive tasks reflect different requirements for searching long-term memory. Participants performed non-visual tasks requiring relatively low or high long-term memory retrieval while eye movements were recorded. In three experiments, EMR was substantially lower for low-retrieval than for high-retrieval tasks, including in an eyes closed condition in Experiment 3. Neither visual imagery nor between-task difficulty was related to EMR, although there was some evidence for a minor effect of within-task difficulty. Comparison of task-related EMRs to EMR during a no-task waiting period suggests that eye movements may be suppressed or activated depending on task requirements. We discuss a number of possible interpretations of saccadic eye movements during non-visual cognition and propose an evolutionary model that links these eye movements to memory search through an elaboration of circuitry involved in visual perception.