Self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism dimensions and their associations with disordered eating

This study examined the relationship between self-oriented and socially prescribed dimensions of perfectionism (using two measures of perfectionism) and disordered eating assessed across multiple time points in a sample of young women. Study participants (n=406) reported on their levels of perfectionism and on their subsequent patterns of dieting and bulimic symptoms. Self-oriented perfectionism was strongly linked to dietary restraint, whether using the theoretically derived perfectionism dimensions from the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) [Hewitt, P.L., & Flett, G.L. (1991a). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456-470] or the dimensions derived from the Perfectionism subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) [Garner, D. M., Olmsted, M. P., & Polivy, J. (1983). Development and validation of a multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2, 15-34]. A less clear-cut pattern emerged when bulimic symptoms were investigated, with both self-oriented (MPS and EDI) and socially prescribed perfectionism (MPS) being associated with bulimic symptoms. After controlling for negative affect, only a self-oriented dimension of perfectionism predicted unique variance in bulimic symptoms. What constitutes maladaptive perfectionism, concerns about using EDI-Perfectionism dimensions interchangeably with MPS dimensions, and future directions are discussed.     

Predicting eating problems among Malaysian Chinese: Differential roles of positive and negative perfectionism

Positive and negative perfectionism (measured by the Positive and Negative Perfectionism Scale; PANPS) are found to have differential roles in predicting eating problems. This study translated and back-translated the PANPS into Chinese and then examined whether its factor structure was comparable to the original PANPS. The relationships between positive and negative perfectionism (using Chinese PANPS) and eating problems were also evaluated. Malaysian Chinese (N = 205) adults completed the Chinese PANPS, Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) and Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. Principal Component Analysis showed the two-factor solution of the Chinese PANPS accounted for 33.42% of the total variance, which was comparable to previous studies. Hierarchical multiple regressions revealed that negative perfectionism significantly predicted all eating disorder symptoms for females, but not drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction for males. Conversely, positive perfectionism significantly predicted lower total EDI scores, lower ineffectiveness and lower interpersonal distrust, but only predicted lower body dissatisfaction among females. In conclusion, negative perfectionism was consistently associated with eating problems whereas positive perfectionism might be a potentially adaptive factor, confirming the distinctive roles each played in the development of eating problems, even in a non-Western population.     

An empirical typology of perfectionism in early-to-mid adolescents and its relation with eating disorder symptoms

Although the association between perfectionism and eating disorder (ED) symptoms is well-established, debate remains about the relative contribution of two central dimensions of perfectionism, that is, Personal Standards (PS) perfectionism and Evaluative Concerns (EC) perfectionism, in the prediction of ED symptoms. This study used cluster analysis to establish naturally occurring combinations of PS and EC perfectionism in early-to-mid adolescents (N = 656; M age = 13.9 years). Evidence was obtained for four perfectionism profiles: (1) maladaptive perfectionism (high PS and high EC), (2) pure evaluative concerns perfectionism (high EC only), (3) adaptive perfectionism (high PS, low EC), and (4) non-perfectionism (low on both PS and EC). A comparison of participants in these four clusters in terms of ED symptoms suggests that a combination of high personal standards and evaluative concerns (rather than the presence of one of these two dimensions alone) is most strongly related to ED symptoms.     

Bulimic symptomatology: the role of adaptive perfectionism, shape and weight concern, and self-esteem

An interactive model implicating high perfectionism, high weight and shape concern, and low self-esteem in the onset and maintenance of bulimic symptoms ( [Bardone et?al., 2000] and [Vohs et?al., 1999] ) has received mixed support. This study aimed to replicate the cross-sectional model in a clinical sample of women with eating disorders, and to investigate whether the model could predict changes in binge eating and purging at the end of treatment. Eating disorder outpatients (n = 353) completed measures of perfectionism, weight/shape concern, self-esteem, and bulimic symptoms at pre-treatment and discharge. Contrary to the hypotheses, the three-way interaction did not predict binge eating or purging cross-sectionally or prospectively as a moderator of psychotherapy outcome. It was concluded that the robustness of the interactive model seems questionable and may be impacted by an inadequate conceptualization of the perfectionism construct.     

Parents' perfectionism and its relation to child rearing behaviors

The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between parents' perfectionism and self‐reported parenting behaviors. The study included 786 parents (417 mothers and 369 fathers) of high school students. Results showed that parents' positive and negative perfectionism were differently related to specific forms of child rearing practices. Namely, positive perfectionism was positively, while negative perfectionism was negatively related to parental acceptance for both mothers and fathers. Mothers' and fathers' negative perfectionism was positively related to parental criticism and permissiveness. In addition, fathers' positive perfectionism was negatively associated with permissive child rearing practices. After controlling for background variables, parents' positive and negative perfectionism explained significant amounts of variance in all self‐reported parenting dimensions for fathers and significantly accounted for the variance of parental acceptance and criticism for mothers. According to our findings, parents' perfectionism might have an important role in shaping parenting behaviors.     

Clinical perfectionism and eating psychopathology in athletes: The role of gender

Clinical perfectionism is considered to be a core psychopathological mechanism involved in the aetiology and maintenance of eating disorders. Recent clinical evidence suggests pathological self-criticism, which underlines clinical perfectionism, exerts a greater influence on eating disordered symptoms than high standards perfectionism. However, little attention has been paid to this line of research within the athletic population. The current study examined the association between various advocated measures of clinical perfectionism and eating psychopathology among athletes, and the moderating effect of gender in such association. A total of 192 competitive level athletes completed self-report measures assessing perfectionism and eating psychopathology. Results revealed self-critical perfectionism as the only independent predictor of athletes’ eating psychopathology. Such relationship was found to be moderated by gender, with increases in self-critical perfectionism resulting in increases in eating psychopathology for female athletes only. The present findings further reinforce self-critical perfectionism as a robust contributor of eating psychopathology.     

Perfectionism and eating disturbances in Korean immigrants: Moderating effects of acculturation and ethnic identity

Korean society highly values personal appearance. Given the established links between perfectionism and eating disorders in Western countries, the present project investigated such links and the extent to which these were moderated by the acculturation patterns of the participants. Korean immigrants to New Zealand (N = 123) completed measures of perfectionism, ethnic identity, eating disorders, and social desirability. Positive and negative perfectionism were associated with eating‐disorder symptoms. For males, but not females, negative perfectionism was more strongly associated with increased body satisfaction only among those who identified strongly as Korean.     

Daily fluctuations in perfectionism dimensions and their relation to eating disorder symptoms

Multidimensional perfectionism has been shown to play an important role in eating disorders (EDs). However, research examining this relation has primarily focused on relatively stable inter-individual differences between persons, thereby failing to examine how these variables are associated within individuals on a daily basis. This study examines how daily fluctuations in Personal Standards (PS) perfectionism and Evaluative Concerns (EC) perfectionism relate to each other and to fluctuations in ED symptoms. Adolescents (N = 275) completed questionnaires each evening during seven consecutive days. Multilevel modeling showed significant day-to-day fluctuations in PS and EC perfectionism, and showed that both dimensions are intertwined in the day. Among females, fluctuations in EC perfectionism co-varied with fluctuations in ED symptoms.     

On the longitudinal interplay between perfectionism and general affect in adolescents

Cross-sectional studies on perfectionism and general affect tend to interpret their findings suggesting affect is an outcome of perfectionism. However, personality theories posit that individual differences in general affect may also influence perfectionism. Expecting to find bidirectional relations, this 3-wave study sought to examine the longitudinal interplay between perfectionism and general affect in a sample of 489 adolescents (54% female) aged 12–19 years. Cross-lagged panel analyses showed a positive unidirectional effect from positive affect to perfectionistic standards as well as a positive bidirectional effect between perfectionistic concerns and negative affect. As expected, general affect was both an antecedent and an outcome of perfectionism. Implications of the findings for the development and outcomes of perfectionism are discussed.     

Perfectionism in depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder and eating disorders

High levels of perfectionism have been observed in major depression, anxiety disorders and eating disorders. Though few studies have compared levels of perfectionism across these disorders, there is reason to believe that different dimensions of perfectionism may be involved in eating disorders than in depression or anxiety [Bardone-Cone, A. M. et al. (2007). Perfectionism and eating disorders: Current status and future directions. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 84-405]. The present study compared patients with major depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and eating disorders on dimensions of perfectionism. Concern over Mistakes was elevated in each of the patient groups while Pure Personal Standards was only elevated in the eating disorder sample. Doubts about Actions was elevated in both patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder and eating disorders, but not in depressed patients. Analyses of covariance indicated that Concern over Mistakes accounted for most of the variance in the relationship of perfectionism to these forms of psychopathology.     

The interaction of perfectionism, perceived weight status, and self-esteem to predict bulimic symptoms: the role of 'benign' perfectionism

The present study sought to replicate an interactive model of global perfectionism, perceived weight status, and self-esteem in predicting bulimic symptom development in a sample of young women [Bardone-Cone, et al. (2006). Predicting bulimic symptoms: An interactive model of self-efficacy, perfectionism, and perceived weight status. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 27-42; Vohs, K. D., et al. (1999). Perfectionism, perceived weight status, and self-esteem interact to predict bulimic symptoms: A model of bulimic symptom development. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 695-700; Vohs, K. D., et al. (2001). Perfectionism, body dissatisfaction, and self-esteem: An interactive model of bulimic symptom development. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 20, 476-497]. The aim was to investigate the role of 'problematic' and 'benign' perfectionism within this model, using data from 95 female university students over a 3-month period. Contrary to hypotheses, multivariate analyses revealed a significant three-way interaction only between 'benign' perfectionism, perceived weight status and self-esteem in predicting change in bulimic symptoms over a 3-month period. The predictive effect of the interaction between 'benign' perfectionism and perceived weight status on bulimic symptoms was strongest for women with high self-esteem, for whom feeling overweight and having perfectionistic attitudes preceded increased bulimic symptoms. These findings suggest that high self-esteem is insufficient to protect against the development of bulimic symptoms when both the perception of oneself as being overweight, and high levels of perfectionistic standards, are present. It would appear that the role of perfectionism within the context of disordered eating is complex.     

Body Dissatisfaction and Eating Disorder Symptomatology: A Latent Structural Equation Modeling Analysis of Moderating Variables in 18-to-28-Year-Old Males

ABSTRACT. Although body dissatisfaction is recognized as the strongest risk factor for eating disturbances, a majority of young males are body dissatisfied, but do not concomitantly report severe levels of eating disorder symptomatology. The present investigation was designed to examine five theoretically relevant variables (i.e., body checking, emotional dysregulation, perfectionism, insecure-anxious attachment, and self-esteem) as potential moderators of the relationship between body dissatisfaction and two critical components of male eating disorder symptomatology: drive for muscularity and bulimic behaviors. Data collected from 551 Italian males between 18 and 28 years old were analyzed using latent structural equation modeling. The authors found that emotional dysregulation, body checking, insecure-anxious attachment and perfectionism intensified the relationship between body dissatisfaction and each criterion variable representing male eating disorder symptomatology; the interactions accounted respectively for an additional 2%, 7%, 4% and 5% of variance in drive for muscularity and for an additional 6%, 4%, 5%, and 2% of the variance in bulimic behaviors. By contrast self-esteem weakened this relationship and the interactions accounted for an additional 3% of the variance in both drive for muscularity and bulimic behaviors. Implications of these findings for prevention and treatment of male eating disturbances are discussed.     

Adaptive elements of aging: Self-image discrepancy, perfectionism, and eating problems

Age-related changes in personality variables that may contribute to the reduction of symptoms of eating disorders with adult development were examined. Undergraduate sorority women (n = 52; mean age = 19.85 years) were compared with alumnae of the same sorority (n = 34; mean age = 33.74 years). Eating pathology was correlated with greater discrepancy between the real (current) and the ideal (desired) self-image and with perfectionism. Both self-image discrepancy and perfectionism were markedly lower among the alumnae. Variance in these variables together accounted for the lowered level of eating pathology among the older participants. Specific content domains of the real and ideal self-image and different facets of perfectionism showed distinctive age-related changes and differential relationships with eating pathology.     

Dimensions of perfectionism and constructive thinking as a coping response

The present study examined perfectionism and general coping ability as assessed by a new measure of constructive thinking. A sample of 77 students completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI). The MPS provides measures of selforiented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism, while the CTI provides various measures, including summary scores of global constructive thinking, emotional coping, behavioral coping, categorical thinking, personal superstitious thinking, naive optimism, and esoteric thinking. Subjects also completed a measure of depressive symptoms so that we could examine perfectionism and coping independent of current levels of adjustment. The main finding was that socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with less constructive thinking and more negative coping across most of the CTI subscales, and these associations remained significant after removing variance due to levels of depression symptoms. Self-oriented perfectionism was adaptive in that it was associated with active forms of behavioral coping, but it was maladaptive in that it was associated with a form of emotional coping involving reduced self-acceptance. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the cognitive treatment of perfectionists. Queen's University This research was supported by grant #410-91-0856 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada awarded to the authors     

A preliminary study of perfectionism and loneliness as predictors of depressive and anxious symptoms in Latinas: a top-down test of a model

In the present study, we used a top-down approach to examine perfectionism and loneliness as additive sociocognitive predictors of depressive and anxious symptoms in a sample of 121 Latina college students. Consistent with expectations, we found perfectionism and loneliness to be associated with both depressive and anxious symptoms. In addition, results of conducting hierarchical regression analyses indicated that certain dimensions of perfectionism, especially doubts about actions, accounted for significant variance in both depressive and anxious symptoms. Moreover, the inclusion of loneliness as a predictor was found to predict additional unique variance in both depressive and anxious symptoms beyond what was accounted for by perfectionism. Implications of the present findings for future research on negative affective conditions in Latinas are discussed.     

Parent perfectionism and psychopathology symptoms and child perfectionism

Perfectionism is a multidimensional construct associated with various psychological problems. Studies regarding risk factors for perfectionism are scarce but evidence suggests that parents may be highly involved in their child’s perfectionism. The present study included 160 children aged 8–17 years (67 males, 93 females) and their parents. Relationships between parent and child perfectionism and between parent psychopathology and child perfectionism were examined across 5 age groups (8–9 years, 10–11 years, 12–13 years, 14–15 years, 16–17 years). Self-oriented perfectionism was highest among children aged 16–17 years. Maternal perfectionism and maternal psychopathology predicted child self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism. Maternal anxiety mediated the relationship between maternal other-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism in children aged 8–12 years. Maternal perfectionism and psychopathology may constitute risk factors for child perfectionism. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for theories of perfectionism.     

Anxiety and dimensions of perfectionism in first year college students: The mediating role of mindfulness

IntroductionAnxiety and perfectionism affect academic success of college students. Mindfulness is associated with decrease anxiety and perfectionism among college students.ObjectiveThis study evaluates the mediating role of dispositional mindfulness on the relationship between adaptive and maladaptive dimensions of perfectionism and anxiety in first year college students.MethodThe subjects, 283 first year college students (59.5% girls), completed self-reported measures of anxiety, perfectionism and dispositional mindfulness.ResultsOur results show that maladaptive perfectionism is associated with greater anxiety, and a higher dispositional mindfulness score is associated with less anxiety symptoms. Also, mindfulness mediates the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and anxiety symptoms, especially in girls. When the shared variance of maladaptive and adaptive perfectionism is statistically controlled, adaptive perfectionism is associated with anxiety symptoms in boys and mindfulness in girls.ConclusionThis study confirms the mediating role of mindfulness on the relation between maladaptive perfectionism and anxiety. Gender differences, limits of the mindfulness measure and future research are discussed.     

Biased interpretation in perfectionism and its modification

Perfectionism is a transdiagnostic construct associated with a range of diagnoses, including depression, eating disorders and obsessive compulsive disorder. Treatments that directly target perfectionist cognitions have been shown to successfully reduce associated pathologies. However, the way in which they do this is not clear. We set out to assess the role of one candidate mechanism of action, namely the cognitive process of interpretation of ambiguity. In one experiment we looked for associations between biased interpretation and perfectionism. In a second, we manipulated interpretations, thereby providing a strong test of their aetiological significance. Results from the first experiment confirmed the presence of biased interpretation in perfectionism and demonstrated that these are highly specific to perfection relevant information, rather than reflecting general negativity. The second experiment succeeded in manipulating these perfection relevant interpretations and demonstrated that one consequence of doing so is a change in perfectionist behaviour. Together, these data experimentally demonstrate that biased interpretation of perfection relevant ambiguity contributes to the maintenance of perfectionism, but that it is also possible to reverse this. Clinical implications include the identification of one likely mechanism of therapeutic change within existing treatments, as well as identification of an appropriate evidence-based focus for future treatment development. Targeting underlying functional mechanisms, such as biased interpretation, has the potential to offer transdiagnostic benefits.     

Perfectionistic self-presentation, body image, and eating disorder symptoms

A specific model for eating disorder symptoms involving perfectionistic self-presentation and two different moderators (i.e., body image evaluation and body image investment) was tested. Participants completed measures of perfectionistic self-presentation, body image dysfunction, and eating disorder symptoms. Findings indicated that all three dimensions of perfectionistic self-presentation were associated with eating disorder symptoms. Results also showed that perfectionistic self-presentation predicted eating disorder symptoms in women who were dissatisfied with their bodies, but that it did not predict eating problems in women who liked their bodies and felt there was little or no discrepancy between their actual and ideal appearances. Body image investment did not moderate the relationship between perfectionistic self-presentation and eating disorder symptoms, suggesting that ego-involvement alone is insufficient to promote eating disturbance in the context of perfectionism. The importance of self-presentation components of perfectionism and specific body image difficulties in predicting eating disorder symptoms are discussed.