Priming and aging: evidence of preserved memory function in an anagram solution task.

Priming effects in a test of anagram solution were compared with recognition memory in young and older adults. Age and a levels-of-processing study manipulation had little influence on priming in the anagram solution task, whereas significant effects of both of these variables were obtained in a recognition test. These findings extend those of previous studies which have shown little evidence of age differences in implicit memory tasks compared with those of explicit memory. Furthermore, they provide evidence for classifying anagram solution as an implicit memory test.     

The effects of sex differences and evaluation on task performance and aspiration

An investigation was conducted of how evaluation differentially affects the performance and aspiration for future performance of 118 high school boys and girls. Subjects were selected to fit into either a superior or average intelligence group. In the high evaluation condition, subjects were instructed that their intelligence was being evaluated in anagram and visual-motor tasks they performed, while those in the low evaluation condition were instructed that the two tasks were being correlated. It was hypothesized that on a highly evaluated task, girls, when compared to boys, would show greater performance debilitation and would have lower aspirations for future performance. Although sex differences were found in performance debilitation and aspiration for future performance, they were not all in the predicted directions. Girls were equally debilitated in anagram performance under both evaluation conditions, while boys were debilitated in anagram performance only under high evaluation. When both boys and girls demonstrated a performance debilitation on the anagram task, their performance declined approximately 10%. No sex differences in performance were found on the visual-motor task. On both tasks, girls' aspirations were significantly affected by evaluation condition. The girls averaged 89% choosing the more difficult task in the low evaluation condition. Evaluation condition had no significant effect on aspiration for boys on either task. Intelligence showed no significant relationships.     

Superiority of variable to repeated practice in transfer on anagram solution

Previous research in motor learning shows that practicing variations of a task (variable practice) leads to better transfer than does repeatedly practicing the exact same task (repeated practice). In contrast, research on priming using verbal materials shows that performance on a test improves to the extent that the material at learning and test overlap. We tested whether variability in practice conditions can lead to improved performance with the verbal priming task of anagram solution. Participants practiced solving anagrams, either repeatedly solving the same anagram that was later tested, repeatedly solving a different anagram from the one that was later tested, or solving different variations of the anagram that was later tested. We found that this last condition-variable practice on different versions of an anagram-led to improved test performance in relation to repeated practice, even when the test anagram was the one that had been repeatedly practiced. This finding aligns results from the motor learning literature with a higher level cognitive task: anagram solution. Shea and Kohl's (1991) hypothesis, arguing that varied practice may lead to greater elaborative processing than does repeated practice, provides one account of the results.     

Functional magnetic resonance imaging studies in bipolar disorder

Abnormalities in brain activation using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during cognitive and emotional tasks have been identified in bipolar disorder patients, in frontal, subcortical and limbic regions. Several studies also indicate that mood state may be differentiated by lateralization of brain activation in fronto-limbic regions. The interpretation of fMRI studies in bipolar disorder is limited by the choice of regions of interest, medication effects, comorbidity, and task performance. These studies suggest that there is a complex alteration in regions important for neural networks underlying cognition and emotional processing in bipolar disorder. However, measuring changes in specific brain regions does not identify how these neural networks are affected. New analytical techniques of fMRI data are needed in order to resolve some of these issues and identify how changes in neural networks relate to cognitive and emotional processing in bipolar disorder.     

The debilitating effect of exposure to noncontingent escape: A test of the learned helplessness model

Two studies were conducted to test the hypothesis that exposure to non-contingent escape leads to performance deficits similar to those observed when subjects are exposed to noncontingent aversive outcomes from which there is no escape, and that causal attributions mediate these deficits. Previous attempts to produce “appetitive helplessness” (deficits resulting from exposure to noncontingent positive events) have been plagued by subjects' tendency to believe that they are responsible for positive events. In Experiment 1, 40 subjects were exposed to contingent or noncontingent noise escape trials. As predicted by the learned helplessness model, subjects who received inescapable noise performed less well on a subsequent anagram task than subjects exposed to escapable noise. Similarly, subjects who escaped from the noise owing to the benevolence of a powerful other rather than because of their own efforts, showed performance deficits paralleling those of the inescapable noise subjects. In Experiment 2, subjects who escaped an aversive tone through no effort of their own showed subsequent performance deficits, but globality of their self-reported attributions did not predict subsequent anagram performance. The results of these studies provide support for the hypothesis that uncontrollability, independent of the valence of a particular outcome, is responsible for helplessness deficits, but do not support the mediational role of attributions, at least in the laboratory.     

Nature Gives Us Strength: Exposure to Nature Counteracts Ego-Depletion

Previous research rarely investigated the role of physical environment in counteracting ego-depletion. In the present research, we hypothesized that exposure to natural environment counteracts ego-depletion. Three experiments were conducted to test this hypothesis. In Experiment 1, initially depleted participants who viewed pictures of nature scenes showed greater persistence on a subsequent anagram task than those who were given a rest period. Experiment 2 expanded upon this finding by showing that natural environment enhanced logical reasoning performance after ego-depleting task. Experiment 3 adopted a two- (depletion vs. no-depletion) -by-two (nature exposure vs. urban exposure) factorial design. We found that nature exposure moderated the effect of depletion on anagram task performance. Taken together, the present studies offer a viable and novel strategy to mitigate the negative impacts of ego-depletion.     

Is implicit sequence learning impaired in schizophrenia? A meta-analysis

Cognition in schizophrenia seems to be characterized by impaired performance on most tests of explicit or declarative learning contrasting with relatively intact performance on most tests of implicit or procedural learning. At the same time there have been conflicting results for studies that have used the Serial Reaction Time (SRT) task to examine implicit learning in people with schizophrenia. In the present research, we used meta-analysis to clarify whether or not people with schizophrenia show impaired performance on the SRT task. A systematic review found nine studies published in peer review journals that had each compared the performance of a group of people with schizophrenia with healthy controls on the standard SRT task or a variant of it. The resulting meta-analysis represented the responses of 205 participants with schizophrenia and 159 healthy controls on the SRT task. The analysis found that participants with schizophrenia perform less well than controls reflected by a pooled effect size of 0.51. A secondary analysis of all nine studies found that they all reported a point estimate of the change in reaction time between sequence and random trials that was greater for the controls. We conclude that there is a moderate impairment in implicit sequence learning among people with schizophrenia and speculate on the implications of this for understanding this disorder. Suggestions for improving the methodological quality and statistical reporting of studies of this topic are made.     

GTIDHNIHS: I knew‐it‐all‐along

Individuals who do insight problems are highly susceptible to hindsight bias. Two sets of studies assessed the impact of hindsight consequences on participants' judgements about anagram difficulty and specific factors for performance. In the first set, hindsight participants underestimated anagram difficulty relative to participants with task experience (worksight). Also, supportive evidence revealed that hindsight consequences were related to self‐perceptions of confidence, ability, performance satisfaction, and subsequent performance expectations. In the second, two different hindsight techniques differentially impacted the participant's assessment of anagram difficulty. When comparing hindsight participants with and without worksight experience, the latter judged the anagrams to be easier. It is appropriate to examine further the cognitive and motivational consequences of hindsight bias in achievement situations. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An interactive approach to work motivation: The effects of competition,rewards, and goal difficulty on task performance

This study examined the interactive effects of competition, rewards, and goal difficulty on task performance and goal commitment. Students were assigned to one of eight experimental conditions and participated in a computerized anagram solution task. Rewards significantly increased performance, especially along with difficult goals. Competition was not found to have an effect on goal commitment or task performance, and goal difficulty increased performance although the results did not reach statistical significance. Goal commitment was shown to have a direct effect on task performance as opposed to a moderating role in the goal level-task performance relationship. A discussion of the findings and suggestions for further research are included.DePaul University     

Effect of electronic device use while driving on cardiovascular reactivity

Motor vehicle collisions are the leading cause of death in people ages 5–34 in the US, and secondary task engagement, such as talking on a cell phone, is a leading contributor to motor vehicle collisions. The negative effects of secondary task engagement on driving performance has become a prominent recent topic of study given the increasing amount of time drivers engage in distracted driving. However, few studies have examined the effects of secondary task engagement while driving on health related outcomes such as cardiovascular reactivity. Cardiovascular reactivity, as measured by heart rate and blood pressure, has been used in previous studies as a means of measuring effort in task engagement as well as a means to predict cardiovascular disease and stroke. This study investigates the effect of secondary task (talking on a cell phone, texting, and driving with no task) while driving in a simulator on cardiovascular reactivity. Using difference scores between baseline (a period of inactivity) and stimulus (driving with no task and driving with secondary tasks), a repeated measures analysis of variance using a mixed model approach was used to determine the effect of secondary task on cardiovascular reactivity. Findings indicated that talking on a cell phone while driving significantly increased cardiovascular reactivity via heart rate and blood pressure compared to driving with no task. Texting while driving did not differ significantly from driving with no task. This study demonstrates the need for more research on the long term effects of secondary tasks while driving on cardiovascular reactivity and for assessing the risks associated with secondary task use while driving on developing cardiovascular disease or stroke.     

Circadian variations of performances and basic rhythms

Difficulties with chronopsychology studies include a masking effect of variables, the combination of different rhythms and variations of strategies. An experiment is conducted to analyze the role of circadian variations of elementary processes in the variations of performance for a complex task. Twenty-four subjects solved anagrams and tried to find the rule of anagram construction, during two sessions, at 10 am and 5 pm. Responses were classified in three groups: (a) discovery of the anagram construction rule (R2 responses); (b) resolution of anagram without discovery of rule (R1 responses); (c) failure, no resolution of anagram (R0 responses). During the second session, R2 performances were better at 10 am than at 5 pm. In contrast, R1 performances were better at 5 pm than at 10 am. Rule application was faster at 10 am than at 5 pm. Results are discussed in terms of variations of short-term memory capacity (Folkard and Monk, 1980). Using chronopsychology to analyze the role of elementary processes in a complex task is discussed.     

Problem Variables that Promote Incubation Effects

Three studies sought to determine whether incubation effects could be reliably generated in a problem‐solving task. Experimental variables manipulated were the duration of the interval between two problem‐solving opportunities and the activity performed by the problem solvers during the interval. A multi‐solution anagram task was used which required problem solvers to generate five‐letter words from the letters in a ten‐letter “starter” word until they could produce no more words. After a break (the incubation period) the problem solvers returned to the anagram task anew. Some participants also engaged in an activity related to the anagram task during the break which was expected to prime potential solutions that would emerge during the second problem‐solving attempt. In all conditions problem solvers were able to generate new responses after the break, thus demonstrating a reliable incubation effect. The optimal incubation period was between 15 and 30 min long. The priming task increased the number of solutions to the anagram task on the second attempt, suggesting that exposure to solution ideas during the incubation period may facilitate an incubation effect during problem solving.     

Increasing self-regulatory strength can reduce the depleting effect of suppressing stereotypes

Three longitudinal studies and one correlational study tested the hypothesis that increasing self-regulatory strength by regular self-regulatory exercise would reduce the intrapsychic costs of suppressing stereotypes. Participants tried to resist using stereotypes while describing or talking to a stimulus person. Participants whose habitual motivation to suppress stereotypes was low exhibited impaired Stroop and anagram performance after the suppression task, presumably because of self-regulatory depletion (i.e., a reduction of self-regulatory strength following prior use). Two weeks of self-regulation exercises (such as using one's nondominant hand or refraining from cursing) eliminated this effect. These findings indicate that self-regulatory exercise can improve resistance to self-regulatory depletion and, consequently, people can suppress stereotypes without suffering subsequent decrements in task performance.     

Repression-sensitization differences in recovery from learned helplessness.

The performance of repressors and sensitizers on a solvable anagram task was assessed after either a short delay (0 to 30 min) or a long delay (2 to 6 hr) following a standard learned helplessness induction. Results indicated that all subjects exposed to the learned helplessness induction exhibited performance deficits, compared with control subjects exposed to no induction. Furthermore, subjects who were tested after the short delay did not perform as well as subjects tested after a long delay. No difference in overall anagram performance was found between repressors and sensitizers. Consistent with theoretical predictions, however, the anagram performance of repressor subjects was significantly better in the long-delay than in the short-delay condition; this significant recovery effect between short- and long-delay conditions was not obtained for sensitizer subjects. Possible theoretical mechanisms for these effects and implications for future research are noted.     

Ego Depletion as a Measure of Emotion Processing Deficits among MUS Patients

Previous studies have found a link between emotion processing deficits and medically unexplained physical symptoms (MUS). The majority of previous studies have used self-report measures of emotional processing, with the majority focusing on alexithymia, and have produced inconsistent and contradictory results. In the present study, we investigated the role of emotion-processing deficits in MUS by assessing emotion regulation performance and the effects of performance on ego depletion. Participants with high or low levels of self-reported MUS watched emotion-evoking videos under instructions to allow or suppress their emotional reactions, and then performed an anagram task to measure their effort and perseverance. Contrary to the research with self-report measures, experimental analysis of emotion-processing revealed that MUS is correlated with the inability to regulate negative emotions. Unexpected self-regulatory tendencies of the participants with high symptom levels were discussed.     

The Bright Side of Threatened Narcissism: Improved Performance Following Ego Threat

Narcissistic individuals have highly positive self‐views and overestimate their abilities. Consequently, they tend to react aggressively whenever they receive information that does not match their high self‐views (ego threat). We argue that focusing on aggression merely portrays a one‐sided view of narcissistic individuals and the manner in which they counter ego threats. We propose that following ego threat, narcissism can also fuel performance. In four studies, we measured nonclinical narcissism and allocated Dutch undergraduate university students (N₁ = 175, N₂ = 142, N₃ = 159, N₄ = 174) to either an ego threat or a no ego threat condition. Ego threat involved negative feedback (Studies 1–2) or threat to uniqueness (Studies 3–4). We measured participants’ intentions to complete a challenging task (Study 1), their creative performance (Studies 2–3), and their performance on an anagram task (Study 4). Across Studies 1–3, we consistently found that following ego threat, higher nonclinical narcissism was associated with greater willingness to perform tasks that enabled demonstration of abilities and enhanced creative performance. These results were confirmed using a meta‐analysis. However, anagram performance was not enhanced following ego threat. We provide additional analyses that might help explain this. Our findings thus reveal a more positive side to the way narcissistic individuals manage threats to their self‐image.     

"I won't do what you tell me!": elevated mood and the assessment of advice-taking in euthymic bipolar I disorder

We hypothesized that when individuals with bipolar disorder are engaged in goal-directed behaviour and experience elevated mood, their decision-making becomes less constrained by advice from other people. This process may allow their goal-directed behaviour to persist, contributing to manic symptoms. Three groups of 32 participants: euthymic-bipolar-I, remitted-unipolar and never-depressed healthy controls were allocated to either a high or low mood induction. Advice-taking was assessed before and after the induction by a computerized task incorporating facial images. The bipolar group significantly opposed the advice given in the task after the high mood induction. The effect was specific to bipolar disorder and remained when controlling for possible confounds. Future work could investigate the effects of this process on manic symptoms, its origins, and the wider theoretical and clinical implications.     

When the going gets tough…: Self-motivation is associated with invigoration and fun

Personality systems interaction (PSI) theory postulates two executive control modes in volitional action: Self-control and self-regulation (self-motivation). Self-control should deplete energy whereas self-motivation should maintain energy and result in invigoration. There were three groups of participants: Self-control, self-motivation, and pretend, who performed a resource-demanding Stroop-Shift and an anagram task. Performance and energy expenditure were examined in each task. Compared to the other groups, the self-motivation group showed increments in blood glucose throughout the experiment, indicating invigoration, and had better performance on the difficult Stroop-Shift task than the self-control group. Additionally, for the self-motivation group anagram performance correlated with less effort and ease of concentration and was moderated by fun in the task. These results are consonant with the predictions of PSI and self-determination theories. It is concluded that self-control depletes resources whereas self-motivation is associated with invigoration in carrying resource-demanding tasks.     

Cognitive and personality characteristics of worriers

Worriers and nonworriers from a college population were compared on the Imaginal Processing Inventory, the Self-Consciousness scale, and the Sandler-Hazari Obsessionality Inventory. Subjects from both groups also engaged in either brief relaxing or stressful imagery. Before the imagery task, measures of cognitive activity were obtained from periods of relaxed wakefulness, focused attention and anagram performance. After the imagery task, focused attention and anagrams measures were repeated. Worriers reported a more negative daydreaming style, greater difficulty with attentional control, and greater obsessional symptoms, public self-consciousness and social anxiety. On thought sampling measures obtained during relaxed wakefulness periods and rated by objective judges, and on self-report measures obtained during the focused attention task, worriers evidenced significantly more negatively affect-laden cognitive intrusions. No differences were found on anagram performance, and imagery condition did not influence any measure, suggesting that instructed fear images are insufficient to initiate worrisome episodes.     

Reflective learning: the use of “if only ...” statements to improve performance

Affective and functional roles of counterfactual thoughts were explored in this two-phase mixed-method study. In Phase I participants recalled disappointing academic events, generated counterfactuals (i.e., what ifs) in response to their performance, and then rated their affect, attribution, and academic locus of control. A statistically significant relationship, r=–0.47, was revealed between students' internal locus of control and the number of counterfactuals they generated. That is, a high sense of personal responsibility and control corresponded to a high number of counterfactuals. In Phase II of the study, a computerized program was utilized in which participants completed a series of anagrams after selecting specific parameters of the task. After feedback, students suggested alternate behaviors that would have changed their anagram scores. Students who compared their performance to a better performance reported lower affect but yielded a greater improvement in scores on a subsequent anagram task than students who compared their performance to a poorer performance. Findings with this sample of high school students were congruent with findings based on college students. Implications are discussed.