谁是最大的受害群体:群际受害者竞争

长期冲突的群体双方都致力于建构自己的最大受害者角色,他们认为自己比对方遭受了更多、更不公平、更不合理的伤害,这种现象称之为群际受害者竞争。群体通过强调冲突给自身造成的伤害后果的严重性与不公平性、伤害的处理方式等,努力声称内群体比对方遭受了更多的伤害。集体受害感、冲突责任归因、记忆的选择性、消除威胁的内在需要以及其他心理特点是群际受害者竞争的心理基础。通过构建\"共同的受害者-侵犯者\"认同以及增加群际接触等可以降低群际受害者竞争的水平,促进群际关系的和谐。今后的研究需要进一步完善群际受害者竞争的机制,深入探讨群际受害者竞争的其他影响因素,争取在干预策略上有所突破,关注非暴力冲突的群体情境中群际受害者竞争的特点,了解第三方群体对谁是最大受害者群体的认知和评价机制。     

群际接触理论——一种改善群际关系的理论

在群际接触假说基础上形成的群际接触理论表明, 群际接触具有改善群际关系、减少群际偏见的作用。围绕群际接触理论的最新研究拓展了研究对象, 研究了群际接触对外显和内隐偏见的降低作用, 间接接触的作用也开始被重视。群际接触减少偏见的作用机制涵盖依存关系、群际互动、情绪因素和认知因素四个方面。在对平等的地位、共同的目标、群际合作以及权威、法律的支持几个条件进行分析的基础上, 越来越多的研究开始关注跨群体友谊的重要性。在未来的研究中, 需要注意提高研究的生态效度、完善群际接触理论的理论体系, 对不良的群际接触予以重视, 并注意与其他相关理论相结合, 在更广阔的背景下审视群际接触理论。     

群际威胁：影响因素与减少策略

群际威胁是增强消极刻板印象和偏见的重要因素, 甚至可以导致群际冲突或暴力。影响群际威胁的因素包括个体的感知与经验、群体特征、社会政策和法规等。通过改变社会分类, 模糊群际边界, 并创造群际接触的机会, 能够增加群际认同感, 降低群际威胁感, 减少群际偏见, 促进积极的群际关系。今后的研究需在不同的社会环境中完善群际威胁的理论模型, 并探索相关变量相互作用的内在机制, 为促进和改善群际关系提供理论依据。     

积极情绪对群际关系认知的影响

随着积极心理学的展开,积极情绪对群际关系认知的影响作用逐渐引起了研究者的关注。本文以熟悉和陌生为线索,回顾了近年来积极情绪对群际关系认知影响的相关研究,并抽取了最能解释积极情绪对群际关系认知的影响因素,包括动机因素、个体与群体的相关度和群体情境。同时根据国外研究的结果,初步总结出积极情绪对群际关系认知的影响模型以及6条影响路径,并对今后的研究提出了展望。     

想象积极群际接触与群际关系改善实验研究述评

想象群际接触的基本思想指,在心理上想象一个积极的群际接触会创设一个心理接触的脚本,激发与外群体成员成功互动的观念,积极互动观念也就伴随产生对外群体的积极情感,导致对外群体的积极感知,增强和外群体进一步接触的意愿。想象群际接触的实验操纵比较简单,设置实验组和控制组,采用指导语的方式,但是想象群际接触的效应受群体地位、内群体认同状况等变量的调节。在未来的研究中, 需要注意提高研究的效度,加强机制、直接行为效应的研究,想象群际接触理论为改善群际关系提供了一个崭新的框架。     

群体认同对群际敏感效应及其行为表现的影响

通过实验研究了群际互动中个体对不同来源身份的消极群体评价的情绪反应及群体认同的调节作用,并从情绪-行为反应的连续性视角探索群际敏感效应的行为表现及内在机制。结果发现:(1)相比内群体的消极群体评价,外群体的消极群体评价更能引起消极情绪反应;(2)群体认同对群际敏感效应起调节作用,高群体认同者对来自外群体消极评价的情绪反应更加负面,而低群体认同者这种趋势并不明显;(3)高群体认同者在经历外群体的消极群体评价后会表现出更多的内群体积极行为,且消极情绪反应对此起中介作用。研究扩展了群际敏感效应的适用范围,并为探讨其内部机制和后续影响提供了新的研究思路。     

群际归因偏好研究综述

群际归因偏好是一种在归因中偏袒内群、贬低外群的现象,是群际偏好在归因中的一种表现.本文首先探讨了其表现形式及产生原因,随后讨论了内群认同强度和群体显著性等的影响因素,最后对未来的研究进行了展望.     

群际威胁的分类及其对群体偏见的影响

群际威胁是指在社会群体情境中,一个群体所具有的资源、信念和价值观等各种特征对另一个群体的存在、发展和目标产生的威胁。这种感知到的威胁会导致人们对外群体产生消极的态度和行为。根据群际威胁的理论来源和内容可以将群际威胁分为现实威胁、文化威胁和认同威胁三类。目前群际威胁对群体偏见影响的理论模型已从最初的单一模型发展到各类威胁共同作用的整合模型。未来的研究应将重点放在对各类威胁间相互关系的探究、群际威胁与群体偏见关系模型的修正和补充,以及发展适合中国本土情况的群际理论上     

扩展群际接触:观点、机制与展望

扩展群际接触效应指的是如果个体得知内群体成员与外群体成员之间具有友谊关系,可以有效减少个体对外群体的偏见,改善对外群体的态度。群际焦虑、知觉到的内群体/外群体准则、将他人纳入自我、自我表露在扩展群际接触效应中起到中介作用,群体准则的知觉差异性、社会意识态度、内群成员的关系紧密性、与外群体的直接接触程度等在扩展群际接触效应中起到调节作用。未来研究需要关注扩展群际接触效应的动机,比较不同类型群体的扩展群际接触效应,探讨扩展群际接触效应更为长远的社会后果,整合间接群际接触的积极效应。     

群际接触对外群体信任的影响:内群体认同的中介效应

目的:探讨内群体认同在群际接触对外群体信任的中介效应。方法:采用内群体认同量表、群际接触量表和外群体信任量表,对570名大学生进行测量,运用SPSS13.0、Amos22.0对数据进行统计分析。结果:内群体认同作为中介变量,群体接触通过内群体认同对外群体信任的具有稳定的间接作用。     

Forgive and Forget? Antecedents and Consequences of Intergroup Forgiveness in Bosnia and Herzegovina

The present study examines the effects of contact and common-ingroup identification on intergroup forgiveness and outgroup behavioral tendencies. A sample of Bosnian Muslims (N  =  180) were asked to report their readiness to forgive the misdeeds committed by Bosnian Serbs during the 1992–95 war in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A path analysis of the presumed antecedents and consequences of forgiveness revealed that frequent and good quality contact with members from the perpetrator group predicted forgiveness (positively) and desire for social distance (negatively). Moreover, the positive relationship between contact and forgiveness was mediated by empathy and trust towards the outgroup and by perceived outgroup heterogeneity. Common-ingroup identification was also found to be positively associated with forgiveness and negatively with social distance towards the outgroup. Finally, intergroup forgiveness also predicted social distance from the outgroup. The theoretical and applied implications of these findings are discussed.     

Collective Apologies and Their Effects on Forgiveness: Pessimistic Evidence but Constructive Implications

In the last three decades, there has been an explosion in the frequency with which leaders of groups have issued official apologies for collective transgressions. These apologies are commonly assumed to lay a pathway to forgiveness and reconciliation, but empirical examination of the downstream consequences of collective apologies is still in its infancy. In this article, we review a series of studies—including interview studies, survey studies, and experiments—that question the assumed wisdom that collective apologies lead to intergroup forgiveness. Reasons for the muted evidence of an apology–forgiveness link at the intergroup level are elaborated, and implications for how best to issue gestures of reconciliation and remorse are discussed.     

Expectations Among Aboriginal Peoples in Canada Regarding the Potential Impacts of a Government Apology

After continued pressure, the Canadian government offered an apology to Aboriginal peoples for its role in the Indian Residential School (IRS) system, where children were removed from their families in an effort to assimilate the Aboriginal population. Although the apology was sought after, it was unclear what Aboriginal peoples expected it to accomplish in relation to their treatment and quality of life within Canada. Quantitative and qualitative analyses revealed that, although Aboriginal adults (N = 164) felt the apology could potentially be a first step towards improved relations with the government and non‐Aboriginal Canadians, expectations that such changes would actually come to fruition were generally pessimistic. In exploring predictors of such expectations, path analysis indicated that those who had been intimately impacted by IRSs reported greater perceived discrimination that, in turn, was associated with lowered intergroup trust and forgiveness. Those who perceived high levels of discrimination were less likely to expect changes following the apology, which was mediated by the low levels of intergroup trust and forgiveness towards the government, but not towards non‐Aboriginal Canadians. Essentially, an apology was not enough to elicit hope for improved intergroup relations, especially when perceptions of continued discrimination impeded the restoration of intergroup trust and forgiveness.     

Lebanese adolescents’ expectations about social inclusion of peers in intergroup contexts

This study examined the role of group norms, group identity, age, contact, and stereotypes on youths’ decisions to include a peer in an intergroup context portraying Lebanese and American adolescents. Lebanese participants (N = 275), ages 12 and 16 years, were surveyed about expectations for inclusion of an out-group target with similar interests or an in-group target with different interests into their own Lebanese group or another American group. Findings indicated participants focused on shared interests, rather than national identity, when making inclusion decisions for either group and group norms mattered. Older participants expected American peers to be less inclusive towards an out-group peer. Direct contact predicted inclusivity of out-group American peers into one’s own Lebanese group, and indirect media-based contact predicted expectations for inclusivity into an American out-group. Findings have implications for interventions aimed at improving cross-national friendships which, in turn, have the potential to reduce prejudicial attitudes.     

Can you forgive? It depends on how happy you are

This paper examined how individual group status and happiness influence forgiveness. In Study 1, happiness was treated as a trait difference: highly happy people, compared with very unhappy people, were found to be more willing to forgive murderers. More important, an interaction effect between happiness and group status on forgiveness was found, that is, highly happy people tended to be more forgiving when either ingroup or outgroup members were killed; unhappy people, however, tended to be less forgiving about murder when ingroup rather than outgroup members were killed. In Study 2, happiness was treated as an emotional state difference: happiness, rather than sadness, was found to bring greater forgiveness. Moreover, consistent with the interaction effect displayed in Study 1, happy participants tended to forgive more when ingroup or outgroup members were hurt; sad participants tended to forgive less when ingroup members rather than outgroup members were hurt. Implications for connections between happiness, group membership, and forgiveness are discussed.