Pathways to successful entrepreneurship: Parenting, personality, early entrepreneurial competence, and interests

Personality traits and parenting may relate to entrepreneurial competence (EC) and entrepreneurial interests (EI), which both are central elements of Holland's E-type. Three hundred and twenty 10th grade students and 139 small business founders from East Germany were studied using structural equation modeling. Results showed that an entrepreneurial personality (low agreeableness and neuroticism, high extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness), and authoritative parenting were linked to adolescent EC in both samples. EC predicted stronger EI, which in turn related to entrepreneurial career prospects in the students, and to an earlier timing of the first business start-up in the founders. Concerning entrepreneurial success, an early start-up and an entrepreneurial personality of the founder were both found to be beneficial. The discussion concentrates on two implications of the findings: bank professionals dealing with venture capital loans would profit from a more thorough assessment of personality traits and programs to foster entrepreneurship should address adolescents in addition to adults.     

Entrepreneurial intention as developmental outcome

What predicts adults' entrepreneurial intentions? Utilizing a cross-sectional sample of 496 German scientists, we investigated a path model for the effects of entrepreneurial personality (Big Five profile), control beliefs, and recalled early entrepreneurial competence in adolescence (early inventions, leadership, commercial activities) on two types of entrepreneurial intentions (conditional and unconditional intentions). As expected, entrepreneurial personality and early entrepreneurial competence on the one hand and both types of entrepreneurial intentions on the other were associated. Findings of structural equation modeling further revealed indirect effects via control beliefs (e.g., mediation effects). The results highlight the importance of a life span developmental approach in entrepreneurship research and support the idea that entrepreneurship can be promoted early in life. The findings are discussed against the backdrop of the economic and societal values that entrepreneurship has in today's societies.     

Public Entrepreneurship as Social Creativity

The article begins with an overview of the innovation process and the entrepreneurial process, each treated as separate but interrelated phenomena. The innovation process tracks the evolution of a new idea through time, whereas the entrepreneurial process tracks the activities that entrepreneurs develop to promote and defend the idea against its detractors. The model of innovation and entrepreneurship introduced distinguishes between individual and collective entrepreneurship and identifies two types of collective entrepreneurship: team entrepreneurship and functional entrepreneurship. A Minnesota case study demonstrates the power of both team and functional entrepreneurship. It also illustrates how important the linkages are between the entrepreneurs and their larger community. An innovative idea's development and survival depends on an “ecology of organizations” that provide “venture” capital for analysis and experimentation. The vast networks of contacts and associations represent a form of social capital just as important as the community's economic capital. In this case, both aspects of social creativity—the community resources and the network of social relations—were found to be instrumental in passing and implementing the first public school choice program in the country.     

Rule-breaking,crime, and entrepreneurship: A replication and extension study with 37-year longitudinal data

Is there an intimate biographical relationship between entrepreneurship and antisocial tendencies? Drawing from Zhang and Arvey's retrospective study [Zhang, Z. & Arvey, R.D. (2009). Rule breaking in adolescence and entrepreneurial status: An empirical investigation. Journal of Business Venturing, 24(5), 436–447], which found a link between entrepreneurship status of male adults and their recalled early antisocial rule-breaking behavior in adolescence, the present study utilized prospective longitudinal data from a Swedish cohort study to clarify the connection between antisocial rule-breaking, crime, and entrepreneurship by applying a developmental perspective. Regression results, which controlled for early socioeconomic background and intellectual competencies, indeed identified early antisocial rule-breaking behavior in adolescence as a valid positive predictor of a subsequent entrepreneurial career in adulthood in men (but not in women). In contrast, registered crime (teenage crime, adult crime, and prototypical trajectories of criminal behavior) as well as rule-breaking attitude in adolescence, as a more latent form of early antisocial tendencies, were relatively unimportant in the prediction of entrepreneurship in both genders. The results are discussed with a focus on rule-breaking and agency theories of entrepreneurship, youth theories, and the importance of looking at gender differences in entrepreneurial development.     

Rule-breaking,crime, and entrepreneurship: A replication and extension study with 37-year longitudinal data

Is there an intimate biographical relationship between entrepreneurship and antisocial tendencies? Drawing from Zhang and Arvey's retrospective study [Zhang, Z. & Arvey, R.D. (2009). Rule breaking in adolescence and entrepreneurial status: An empirical investigation. Journal of Business Venturing, 24(5), 436–447], which found a link between entrepreneurship status of male adults and their recalled early antisocial rule-breaking behavior in adolescence, the present study utilized prospective longitudinal data from a Swedish cohort study to clarify the connection between antisocial rule-breaking, crime, and entrepreneurship by applying a developmental perspective. Regression results, which controlled for early socioeconomic background and intellectual competencies, indeed identified early antisocial rule-breaking behavior in adolescence as a valid positive predictor of a subsequent entrepreneurial career in adulthood in men (but not in women). In contrast, registered crime (teenage crime, adult crime, and prototypical trajectories of criminal behavior) as well as rule-breaking attitude in adolescence, as a more latent form of early antisocial tendencies, were relatively unimportant in the prediction of entrepreneurship in both genders. The results are discussed with a focus on rule-breaking and agency theories of entrepreneurship, youth theories, and the importance of looking at gender differences in entrepreneurial development.     

创业进展与创业努力的多层次关系：创业自我效能的中介与调节定向的调节作用

基于动机性自我调节框架,通过两项独立研究,探讨前期创业努力对随后创业进展的影响及其内在机理——创业自我效能的中介与调节定向的调节作用。对115名新创业者进行为期6个月(研究1)和对70名新创业者进行为期15个月的追踪调查(研究2),分别构建多层次跨期中介效应检验模型和多层线性回归模型进行数据分析。结果发现:(1)创业自我效能在前期创业进展对随后创业努力的影响中起中介角色;(2)从总体上看(即不考虑调节定向作用时),前期创业进展通过正向影响创业自我效能,负向影响随后创业努力;(3)促进定向水平越高,创业自我效能对随后创业努力产生越强的负向影响,从而前期创业进展与随后创业努力的间接负相关关系越强;(4)预防定向水平越高,创业自我效能对随后创业努力产生越弱的负向影响,从而前期创业进展与随后创业努力的间接负相关关系越弱。这一结果弥合了过往创业自我调节过程研究的混淆结论,拓展了创业情境下的动机性自我调节框架与调节定向观研究,对于揭示创业过程的动态性、复杂性具有积极作用。     

Entrepreneurship education: relationship between education and entrepreneurial activity

The importance of entrepreneurial activity for the economic growth of countries is now well established. The relevant literature suggests important links between education, venture creation and entrepreneurial performance, as well as between entrepreneurial education and entrepreneurial activity. The primary purpose of this paper is to provide some insights about entrepreneurship education. The meaning of entrepreneurship education is explained, and the significant increase of these educational programmes is highlighted. Literature has been suggesting that the most suitable indicator to evaluate the results of entrepreneurship education is the rate of new business creation. However, some studies indicate that the results of such programmes are not immediate. Therefore, many researchers try to understand the precursors of venture creation, concluding that is necessary to carry out longitudinal studies. Based on an overview of the research published about the existing linkage of entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial activity, the main topics studied by different academics are addressed. For the authors, the positive impact of entrepreneurship education puts a double challenge on governments in the future: the increased need of financial funds to support entrepreneurship education and the choice of the correct educational programme.     

Assessing entrepreneurial inclinations: Some approaches and empirical evidence

Interest in entrepreneurship is intense in many parts of the world and this has arisen because of the association between new venture creation and economic development. Entrepreneurship is a process that often leads to the creation of new enterprises but in this article the concept is broadened to include innovative and enterprising behaviour within existing organizations. While it is recognized that entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship are the products of various societal, organizational, and individual factors, this article focuses on the inherent personal traits of individuals that dispose them to engage in entrepreneurial acts. Some approaches to assessing the entrepreneurial personality are examined, but the principal focus is on pencil and paper measures of entrepreneurial attributes. Various instruments that purport to measure key entrepreneurial characteristics such as need for achievement, locus of control, and creative tendencies are considered and relevant empirical evidence is reported. A consideration of the appropriateness of the Durham University Business School's General Enterprising Tendency test as a composite instrument for assessing enterprising or entrepreneurial tendencies follows along with some statistical norms for this test, which should prove useful for practitioners and academics alike. Finally, some problems with trait theories of entrepreneurship are discussed.     

创业精神模型的构思与测量研究进展

文章概括了创业精神的核心特征--创新性、冒险性和主动性,并将相关研究归纳为个体、组织和社会三个层面.文章在对创业精神构思的理论视角--特质观、胜任力观、文化观和社会网络观的评述基础上,总结了创业精神模型的维度及测量方法,并提出了未来研究方向.     

THE PRACTICAL INTELLIGENCE OF ENTREPRENEURS: ANTECEDENTS AND A LINK WITH NEW VENTURE GROWTH

We draw upon cognitive psychology and social cognition theories to develop a model of practical intelligence, its antecedents, and its role in the early growth phase of entrepreneurship. The model was tested through interviews with 22 printing industry CEOs and responses from 283 founders of early‐stage printing and graphics businesses. Related venture and industry experience and 2 learning orientations interacted to predict practical intelligence. In turn, practical intelligence interacted with growth goals to predict higher venture growth across 4 years.     

Counseling would‐be entrepreneurs

The aim of this article is to provide counselors, academic advisers, and career coaches with a basic understanding of entrepreneurial careers. After presenting a brief history of entrepreneurship, the authors discuss various psychological, social, and economic factors associated with selecting, preparing for, and remaining successful in an entrepreneurial career. They also discuss various ways counselors can help aspiring entrepreneurs achieve their goals. An extensive annotated bibliography of online entrepreneurship resources is included.     

Entrepreneurship research and practice: a call to action for psychology

Entrepreneurship is a major source of employment, economic growth, and innovation, promoting product and service quality, competition, and economic flexibility. It is also a mechanism by which many people enter the society's economic and social mainstream, aiding culture formation, population integration, and social mobility. This article aims to illuminate research opportunities for psychologists by exposing gaps in the entrepreneurship literature and describing how these gaps can be filled. A "call to action" is issued to psychologists to develop theory and undertake empirical research focusing on five key topic areas: the personality characteristics of entrepreneurs, the psychopathology of entrepreneurs, entrepreneurial cognition, entrepreneurship education, and international entrepreneurship. Methodological issues are discussed and recommendations provided. It is shown that psychologists can help identify the factors that influence new venture creation and success and inform the construction of public policy to facilitate entrepreneurship.     

Developing internality and perceived competence: the empowerment of adolescent girls

A small group workshop, developed for Big Sisters of Colorado, Inc. to complement their traditional program, was evaluated to determine its effectiveness for working-class and underclass adolescent girls. The "Life Choices" program was successful with working-class Ss, resulting in increased internality and perceived competence for school success, social relationships and general life events. These Ss also increased their knowledge of both traditional and non-traditional career alternatives. However, the program did not succeed with underclass adolescent girls, who showed no increase in internality or knowledge of career alternatives and reported a significant decrease in perceived competence after completing the same program. It is suggested that the goals and strategies presented in such programs must be designed specifically for adolescents of different backgrounds if they are to result in empowerment of the participants.     

Cognitive Style and Entrepreneurial Drive of New and Mature Business Owner-Managers

Purpose  

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether cognitive style and entrepreneurial drive are important for identifying individuals who have the potential to become successful entrepreneurs, and for discriminating between owner-managers operating in mature and early stages of venture creation and growth.     

Mediation and Moderated Mediation in the Relationship Among Role Models,Self‐Efficacy,Entrepreneurial Career Intention,and Gender

This paper addresses the effects of role models and self‐efficacy on forming career intentions, and whether the effects vary by gender and process. Focusing on entrepreneurship as a career choice, we explored (a) the effect of exposure to entrepreneurial role models on entrepreneurial career intention; (b) the difference in effects between men and women; and (c) the mediating functionality of self‐efficacy. Results indicate that role models have a significant and positive impact on intention, that gender moderated the effects, and that self‐efficacy mediated it. A moderated mediation relationship was observed such that, for women, role models had stronger influence on self‐efficacy, which, in turn, influenced entrepreneurial career intention. Results are discussed in terms of implications for theory and practice.     

EQ-nomics: Understanding the relationship between individual differences in Trait Emotional Intelligence and entrepreneurship

Past studies highlight the importance of Trait Emotional Intelligence (EI) in the prediction of career success. Given the evidence that trait EI predicts job performance and job satisfaction, it is reasonable to expect this construct to also predict other forms of career success. In this study, we examine whether EI predicts entrepreneurship; that is, whether higher trait EI is linked to entrepreneurial behaviours and entrepreneurial success, and whether any effects of trait EI on entrepreneurship are independent of the personality trait of Core Self-Evaluations, demographic variables, and individual differences in entrepreneurial personality. Results show that trait EI predicts only some entrepreneurial outcomes beyond other variables examined, and with small effect sizes. This suggests that individual differences in entrepreneurship result only in part from inter-personal differences in trait EI. Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

EQ-nomics: Understanding the relationship between individual differences in Trait Emotional Intelligence and entrepreneurship

Past studies highlight the importance of Trait Emotional Intelligence (EI) in the prediction of career success. Given the evidence that trait EI predicts job performance and job satisfaction, it is reasonable to expect this construct to also predict other forms of career success. In this study, we examine whether EI predicts entrepreneurship; that is, whether higher trait EI is linked to entrepreneurial behaviours and entrepreneurial success, and whether any effects of trait EI on entrepreneurship are independent of the personality trait of Core Self-Evaluations, demographic variables, and individual differences in entrepreneurial personality. Results show that trait EI predicts only some entrepreneurial outcomes beyond other variables examined, and with small effect sizes. This suggests that individual differences in entrepreneurship result only in part from inter-personal differences in trait EI. Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

Professional News Section

Advances in our knowledge of entrepreneurship are enabling progress to be made. In this article, entrepreneurship is considered as a process in which the entrepreneur and the entrepreneurial process are aspects of the same phenomenon. In order to capture this process, a social constructionist theoretical framework is adopted. The article develops an explanation of how the social construction of the entrepreneurial personality may be placed in the context of the social construction of their business reality. Fundamental defining assumptions are discussed, in particular, the opportunistic behaviour of the individual to whom the attribution ''entrepreneur'' is made. Finally, a seven-point research agenda is presented.     

The young adult love lives of happy teenagers: The role of adolescent affect in adult romantic relationship functioning

This study assessed early adolescent positive and negative affect as long-term predictors of romantic conflict, anxious and avoidant attachment, romantic and social competence, and relationship satisfaction in adulthood utilizing a longitudinal, multi-informant study of 166 participants assessed annually at ages 14–17, and again at ages 23–25. Positive affect in adolescence predicted greater self-rated social competence during late adolescence and greater self-rated romantic competence and less partner-reported hostile conflict almost a decade later. Negative affect predicted lower social and romantic competence. Results generally remained significant after controlling for personality traits, providing greater support for the hypothesis that affect has a robust, direct relation to romantic development over time.     

Continuity in adolescent career preparation and its effects on adjustment

Career preparation represents a major developmental task of adolescence, which has not received sufficient attention in empirical research on career development. Thus, this study was designed to examine the structure, continuity, and change in adolescent career preparation and its relationships with adjustment. The data were collected from a diverse sample of 389 adolescents on four occasions beginning in Grade 11 in high school and ending 6 months after high school graduation. Using Structural Equations modeling, a four-wave, developmental model of adolescent career preparation indicated by career decidedness, planning, and confidence was shown to fit the empirical data very well. Career preparation was characterized by continuity and a consistent pattern of positive concurrent and prospective associations with various indicators of adjustment. The results of the study provide empirical support for the theoretical propositions about the adaptive role of adolescent career preparation, particularly in terms of its contribution to psychological well-being and social integration.