Use of a self-regulated strategy intervention to improve word problem-solving skills of students with mild disabilities

We investigated the effects of self-regulated strategy instruction on the ability of four elementary-school students with mild handicaps (2 with learning disabilities [LD] and 2 with mild mental retardation [MMR]) to perform 4 types of addition and subtraction word problems. We used a multiple baseline design and a self-instructional strategy to address story problem solving. Results indicated that the strategy was effective in increasing the number of correctly solved word problems. Gains were maintained across a 6 and 8 week follow-up check. The study supports previous research indicating that cognitive strategies are effective for students with LD and suggests that cognitive strategies are appropriate for students with MMR.     

Middle School Learners' Use of Latin Roots to Infer the Meaning of Unfamiliar Words

This study investigated how middle school students leverage information about bound Latin roots (e.g., voc in advocate and vociferous) to infer meanings of unfamiliar words, and how instruction may facilitate morphological analysis using roots. A dynamic assessment of morphological analysis was administered to 29 sixth graders (n = 17 intervention students) and 30 seventh graders (n = 18 intervention students). Qualitative analyses of analytic strategies revealed patterns of morphological problem solving that included direct (i.e., direct application of roots to analyze unfamiliar words) and indirect routes (i.e., use of known words that carry the roots to analyze unfamiliar words). Intervention students applied a direct route at higher rates than control students. Correlational analyses revealed a small but significant treatment effect on establishing meaning memory representations for roots and a significant, positive treatment effect for use of roots to infer unfamiliar word meanings. Overall results show promise for use of bound Latin roots for morphological problem solving.     

Teaching students to recognize structural similarities between statistics word problems

An important skill in mathematical problem solving is recognizing that the problem one is working on (target problem) can be solved using the same method as a problem one already knows (source problem). In a preliminary study, college students displayed a higher level of structural awareness (i.e. sorting word problems on the basis of structural features) at the end rather than the beginning of their first statistics course. In the main study, we taught college students to sort statistics word problems on the basis of structural features (i.e. whether the problem could be solved by t‐test, correlation, or chi‐square statistics) rather than surface features (i.e. the problem's cover story). These results support a structural awareness theory in which students learn to form problem schemas by abstracting the underlying structural features of a problem statement and organizing them into a generalized problem model. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cognitive correlates of mathematical achievement in children with cerebral palsy and typically developing children

Background . Remarkably few studies have investigated the nature and origin of learning difficulties in children with cerebral palsy (CP). Aims . To investigate math achievement in terms of word‐problem solving ability in children with CP and controls. Because of the potential importance of reading for word‐problem solving, we investigated reading as well. Sample . Children with CP attending either special (n= 41) or mainstream schools (n= 16) and a control group of typically developing children in mainstream schools (n= 16). Method . Group differences in third grade math and reading, controlled for IQ, were tested with analyses of co‐variance (ANCOVAs). Hierarchical regression was used to investigate cognitive correlates of third grade math and reading. Predictors included verbal and non‐verbal IQ measured in first grade, components of working memory (WM) and executive function (EF) measured in second grade, and arithmetic fact fluency and reading measured in third grade. Results . Children with CP in special schools performed significantly worse than their peers on word‐problem solving and reading. There was a trend towards worse performance in children with CP in mainstream schools compared to typically developing children. Conclusions . Impairments of non‐verbal IQ and WM updating predicted future difficulties in both word‐problem solving and reading. Impairments of visuospatial sketchpad and inhibition predicted future word‐problem, but not reading difficulty. Conversely, deficits of phonological loop predicted reading but not word‐problem difficulty. Concurrent arithmetic fact fluency and reading ability were both important for word‐problem solving ability. These results could potentially help to predict which children are likely to develop specific learning difficulties, facilitating early intervention.     

Mental models in word problem-solving: A comparison between American and Korean sixth-grade students

Mental model analysis was conducted in word problem solving using American (n = 42) and Korean (n = 44) sixth-graders. Two levels of mental models–the problem model and the mathematical model–constructed in the process of word problem solving were investigated. Categories for correct and incorrect models were developed to be used in think-aloud protocol analysis. The majority of students who constructed correct problem models classified the problems rapidly according to solution procedures as they read the problems, or restated the problems focusing on the specific words relating them to other statements in the problems. However, significant differences were found between American and Korean sixth-graders' in some categories of problem and mathematical models. While many Korean sixth-graders' problem-solving process steps were proceduralized, this was not the case for American sixth-graders, even for those who had a readily accessible knowledge base of basic mathematical facts.     

Event‐based prospective memory and obsessive–compulsive disorder intrusive obsessional thoughts

Recent studies have found poorer prospective remembering among students selected for elevated obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) checking and washing. However, as prospective memory performance also requires retrospective remembering, it is not clear from earlier work whether deficits in prospective memory in samples with OCD symptomatology are due to problems with prospective remembering, or to retrospective memory failures that result in poorer performance on prospective memory tasks. The present study examines performance on matched prospective and retrospective memory tasks among students selected for high (n = 48) and low (n = 44) scores on the Obsessive–Compulsive Inventory‐Revised Obsession subscale. Significant differences between the groups were found in prospective memory (regardless of whether the word was neutral or harm/danger‐related), but not retrospective memory. The findings are consistent with the prediction that obsessional thoughts that occupy working memory capacity would have a deleterious effect on a resource‐demanding prospective memory task. An additional finding was that there were no group differences in self‐reported complaints of problems with prospective memory.     

Professional Experience and Referencing Context Explain Variance in Use of Spatial Frames of Reference

The location of objects in relation to other objects can be perceived of and communicated in different ways. Assuming that variance in spatial Frame of Reference (FoR) use may be explained by practical professional requirements, we reasoned that medical professionals may increasingly use the intrinsic FoR which because of its observer‐independence is less prone to misunderstandings than relative FoRs. We compared FoR‐use of beginner and advanced medical students (n = 142) to that of law students (n = 191) using 40 ambiguous referencing tasks. We found that medical students applied the intrinsic FoR more frequently than law students in a medical yet not in a generic context. Beginners did not differ from advanced students. Within contexts, individuals were highly consistent in their FoR‐use. Investigation of latencies indicates that processing of the intrinsic FoR becomes easier with practice. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Are diagrams always helpful tools? Developmental and individual differences in the effect of presentation format on student problem solving

Background. High school and college students demonstrate a verbal, or textual, advantage whereby beginning algebra problems in story format are easier to solve than matched equations ( Koedinger & Nathan, 2004 ). Adding diagrams to the stories may further facilitate solution ( Hembree, 1992 ; Koedinger & Terao, 2002 ). However, diagrams may not be universally beneficial ( Ainsworth, 2006 ; Larkin & Simon, 1987 ). Aims. To identify developmental and individual differences in the use of diagrams, story, and equation representations in problem solving. When do diagrams begin to aid problem‐solving performance? Does the verbal advantage replicate for younger students? Sample. Three hundred and seventy‐three students (121 sixth, 117 seventh, 135 eighth grade) from an ethnically diverse middle school in the American Midwest participated in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, 84 sixth graders who had participated in Experiment 1 were followed up in seventh and eighth grades. Method. In both experiments, students solved algebra problems in three matched presentation formats (equation, story, story + diagram). Results. The textual advantage was replicated for all groups. While diagrams enhance performance of older and higher ability students, younger and lower‐ability students do not benefit, and may even be hindered by a diagram's presence. Conclusions. The textual advantage is in place by sixth grade. Diagrams are not inherently helpful aids to student understanding and should be used cautiously in the middle school years, as students are developing competency for diagram comprehension during this time.     

Cognitive Distortions of Child Molesters on Probation or Parole in Japan

The present study examined cognitive distortions of child molesters on probation or parole in Japan utilizing an 18‐item questionnaire administered in a treatment program conducted by the probation officers. This study analyzed the responses of child molesters (n = 51), non‐child‐molesting sexual offenders (n = 65), and non‐offenders (n = 64). Factor analysis of the responses showed three types of cognitive distortions: Rationalization of Offending Behavior, Minimization of Responsibility for Offending, and Minimization of Victim Harm. Welch's analysis of variance followed by Games‐Howell post hoc tests revealed that the child molesters scored significantly higher than the non‐offender group on the Rationalization of Offending Behavior subscale and the Minimization of Responsibility for Offending subscale, and significantly higher than the non‐child‐molesting sexual offender group on the Minimization of Responsibility for Offending subscale. The authors discuss the meanings of these three types of cognitive distortions and future research issues.     

Cognitions associated with recovery from alcohol dependence1

The present study examined the cognitive factors uniquely associated with the status of alcohol dependence recovery, assessing Korean patients who were recovered (n = 57), having been alcohol‐abstinent for 4 months or more after treatment, and who were nonrecovered (n = 213), being still in treatment. Compared with the nonrecovered group, the recovered group reported lower levels of denial of drinking problems and rationalization of drinking (two dimensions of specific beliefs that facilitate alcohol use), dysfunctional attitudes, depressed mood, and emotion‐focused coping. The recovered group also showed higher levels of alcohol abstinence self‐efficacy and problem‐focused coping. Both denial and alcohol abstinence self‐efficacy were uniquely associated with alcohol dependence recovery, when we controlled for the other relevant predictors, whereas neither dysfunctional attitudes nor rationalization were so associated. These findings could be useful in refining psychological interventions facilitating the recovery of alcohol‐dependent patients.     

The effect of a multicomponent literacy instruction model on literacy growth for kindergartners and first‐grade students in Chile

In the present study we examined the impact of a comprehensive literacy instruction model called Collaborative Language and Literacy Instruction Project (CLLIP) on language and literacy achievement over the course of a year by Spanish‐speaking children in Chile. Participants included kindergartners (N = 312) from high and low socioeconomic backgrounds and first‐grade students (N = 305) from high SES families. The CLLIP model targeted phonological awareness, alphabetics and phonics, fluency, vocabulary, reading comprehension and writing, and included coaching and sustained follow‐up as key elements for teacher professional development. The results showed promise for the CLLIP model in the Chilean context. Kindergartners in CLLIP classrooms had faster growth rates in letter naming, word reading, vocabulary, and phonemic segmentation fluency than those in control classrooms, and had higher scores at the end of the year in phonemic segmentation fluency, letter naming, and word reading. In addition, kindergartners from high SES families had faster growth rates than kindergartners from low SES families in letter naming and word reading. Effect sizes ranged from small (d = .18 in word reading) to fairly large (d = .70 in letter‐naming fluency). First‐grade students in CLLIP classrooms had faster growth rates than students in control classrooms in vocabulary, nonword reading fluency, word reading, and reading comprehension. Effect sizes were small in vocabulary, nonword reading fluency, and reading comprehension (.23 ≤ d ≤ .28) and medium in word reading (d = .50). These results suggest that the present multicomponent literacy instructional model had a positive impact on Chilean children's literacy acquisition.     

Mother–Child Book‐Sharing and Children's Storytelling Skills in Ethnically Diverse,Low‐Income Families

The present study examined book‐sharing interactions between mothers and their 4‐year‐old children from African American (n = 62), Dominican (n = 67), Mexican (n = 59) and Chinese (n = 82) low‐income U.S. families, and children's independent storytelling skills one year later. Mothers' book‐sharing style was analysed in terms of how much storyline information they provided (story components), the extent to which they asked children about the story (dialogic emphasis) and which features of the story they highlighted (story content). African American mothers referred to more story components than did Dominican mothers, and Mexican mothers surpassed Dominican and Chinese mothers. Mothers of all groups were low in dialogic emphasis; they predominantly narrated rather than asked about the story, although Mexican mothers asked relatively more questions than did African American and Dominican mothers. In terms of content, compared with other groups, African American mothers were most likely to emphasize ‘individual goals’, and Chinese mothers were most likely to emphasize ‘negative consequences’. Latino mothers were more likely to emphasize ‘emotions’ than were Chinese mothers. Children's storytelling styles partially mirrored those seen in their mothers. Mothers' dialogic emphasis related to children's contributions to book‐sharing, which in turn predicted children's later independent storytelling skills. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Pupils' over‐reliance on linearity: A scholastic effect?

Background. From upper elementary education on, children develop a tendency to over‐use linearity. Particularly, it is found that many pupils assume that if a figure enlarges k times, the area enlarges k times too. However, most research was conducted with traditional, school‐like word problems. Aims. This study examines whether pupils also over‐use linearity if non‐linear problems are embedded in meaningful, authentic performance tasks instead of traditional, school‐like word problems, and whether this experience influences later behaviour. Sample. Ninety‐three sixth graders from two primary schools in Flanders, Belgium. Method. Pupils received a pre‐test with traditional word problems. Those who made a linear error on the non‐linear area problem were subjected to individual interviews. They received one new non‐linear problem, in the S‐condition (again a traditional, scholastic word problem), D‐condition (the same word problem with a drawing) or P‐condition (a meaningful performance‐based task). Shortly afterwards, pupils received a post‐test, containing again a non‐linear word problem. Results. Most pupils from the S‐condition displayed linear reasoning during the interview. Offering drawings (D‐condition) had a positive effect, but presenting the problem as a performance task (P‐condition) was more beneficial. Linear reasoning was nearly absent in the P‐condition. Remarkably, at the post‐test, most pupils from all three groups again applied linear strategies. Conclusions. Pupils' over‐reliance on linearity seems partly elicited by the school‐like word problem format of test items. Pupils perform much better if non‐linear problems are offered as performance tasks. However, a single experience does not change performances on a comparable word problem test afterwards.     

1 + 2 is more than 2 + 1: Violations of commutativity and identity axioms in mental arithmetic

Over the past decade or so, a large number of studies have revealed that conceptual meaning is sensitive to situational context. More recently, similar contextual influences have been documented in the domain of number knowledge. Here we show such context dependency in a length production task. Adult participants saw single digit addition problems of the form n1 + n2 and produced the sum by changing bi-directionally the length of a horizontally extended line, using radially arranged buttons. We found that longer lines were produced when n1 < n2 compared to n1 > n2 and that unit size increased with result size. Thus, the mathematical axioms of commutativity and identity do not seem to hold in mental addition. We discuss implications of these observations for our understanding of cognitive mechanisms involved in mental arithmetic and for situated cognition generally.     

COGNITIVE AND SOCIOEMOTIONAL FUNCTIONING AT 4½ YEARS IN CHILDREN BORN TO MOTHERS WHO HAVE RECEIVED TREATMENT FOR SUBSTANCE‐ABUSE PROBLEMS WHILE PREGNANT

Cognitive and socioemotional functioning at 4½ years of age were examined in children born to mothers with substance‐abuse problems (n = 22) recruited from residential treatment institutions while pregnant, and then compared to children born to mothers with mental health problems (n = 18) and children from a low‐risk group (n = 26). No significant group differences in cognitive functioning were found, but the children born to mothers with substance‐abuse problems showed more caregiver‐reported socioemotional problems than did the low‐risk children, like the children born to mothers with mental health problems. Birth weight had an effect on internalizing problems at 4½ years and mediated the relation between group and socioemotional problems, although not when controlling for caregiver education, single parenthood, and anxiety and depression. At 4½ years, 7 children born to mothers with substance‐abuse problems were placed in foster care. These children had lower birth weight and higher caregiver‐rated internalizing problems. In addition to emphasizing the importance of the quality of the prenatal environment, this study suggests that families with previous substance abuse are in need of long‐term follow‐up to address socioemotional problems and enhance further positive child cognitive development. The foster‐placed children may be in particular need of long‐term follow‐up.     

Linguistic Analysis of Written Narratives of Caregivers of Children and Adolescents with Chronic Illness: Cognitive and Emotional Processes and Physical and Psychological Health Outcomes

Used linguistic analysis of written narratives of caregivers of hospitalized youth with chronic illness to identify emotional and cognitive processes related to physical and psychological health outcomes following writing. Measures were administered at baseline and 4 months. Experimental group (n = 29) wrote about traumas whereas the control group (n = 24) wrote about summer activities for 20 min on three different days. Compared groups on negative emotion- and cognition-related word use. Tested change in negative emotion- and cognition-related word use as predictors of outcomes in experimental group. Consistent with hypotheses, experimental group used more negative emotion words [F(1, 53) = 77.55, p < .001] and cognition-related words than control group [F(1, 53) = 19.09, p < .001] and an increase in cognition words predicted Physical Health Summary Score on SF-36 (standardized = .37, p < .05). A decrease in negative emotion words was related to Physical Health Summary Score on SF-36 only when entered into regression with change in cognition words (standardized = –.31, p < .05). A decrease in negative emotion together with an increase in cognitive processing facilitated by written emotional disclosure has beneficial effects on physical health-related quality of life.     

Teaching college students to pour accurately using behavioral skills training: Evaluation of the effects of peer modeling

Excessive alcohol consumption among college students is a serious problem. Alcohol education courses, during which students are taught to free‐pour accurate servings of alcohol, have been proposed as one strategy to reduce this problem. However, few studies have evaluated the effects of peer models on free‐pour skill maintenance. We used a nonconcurrent multiple‐baseline across subjects design to assess the effects of peer modeling on maintenance of college students' (N = 19) pouring skills of a standard serving of beer immediately following Behavioral Skills Training (BST). Results indicated participants who inaccurately poured a standard serving of beer at baseline (n = 17) accurately poured following receipt of BST, and all participants (N = 19) maintained accurate pouring in the presence of peer confederate models who poured inaccurately or accurately. Results suggest BST is an efficient (i.e., low to no‐cost, requires no sophisticated laboratory space or software, and makes use of available and affordable materials) and effective tool for teaching college students to pour standard servings of beer and that the immediate introduction of inaccurately pouring peer models has little or no effect on skill maintenance.     

Factors Explaining the Intention to Use Condoms Among Injecting Drug Users Participating in a Needle‐Exchange Program1

This study identified the psychosocial factors related to condom‐use intention, based on Triandis’ (1980) theory of interpersonal behavior, among 261 injection drug users participating in a needle‐exchange program. With regular partners (n= 139), condom‐use intention was explained by normative beliefs, self‐efficacy, length of relationship with last regular sexual partner, and taking oral contraceptives. Condom‐use intention with casual partners (n= 157) was also associated with self‐efficacy and normative beliefs, on top of cognitive dimension with attitudes and lending used needles. Neither the perception of being HIV‐positive, nor the habit of using a condom was associated with intention. It is thus suggested that interventions aimed at promoting condom use among this clientele be oriented toward the reinforcement of personal convictions as well as toward the development of competencies needed to overcome obstacles, since both relate to the intention to adopt this behavior.     

Stability of Cognitive Bias for Threat Cues in Phobia

The present study examined whether the cognitive bias for threat is a stable phenomenon in spider phobics and not in nonphobic controls. The rationale of this study was that the use of emotional bias for individual assessment in clinical practice requires stability of this phenomenon. In order to assess the stability of the emotional bias, the spider Stroop task was administered twice to spider phobics and controls, with a time lag of 3 weeks. In two experiments, spider phobics (n_{exp. 1} = 20; n_{exp. 2} = 33) and controls (n_{exp. 1} = 24; n_{exp. 2} = 25) were selected on basis of a structured interview. In the second experiment, subjects anticipated exposure to a real-life spider. Emotional bias was inferred from color-naming latencies on spider words versus control words. In line with our prediction, the bias for threat was stable in spider phobic individuals but not in controls. This stability could not be attributed to a general cognitive characteristic because a standard Stroop task did not differentiate between the spider phobics and the controls. The results support the view that cognitive processing of threat in anxiety is stable. It is proposed to use both the emotional bias and its stability as measures of the constraints on the flexibility of the cognitive fear-network.