Citation Analysis of Skinner's Verbal Behavior: 1984-2004

The present study undertook an updated citation analysis of Skinner's (1957)Verbal Behavior. All articles that cited Verbal Behavior between 1984 and 2004 were recorded and content analyzed into one of five categories; four empirical and one nonempirical. Of the empirical categories, studies that employed a verbal operant from Skinner's analysis were assigned to either basic, applied, or observational categories. Empirical studies that did not employ a verbal operant were categorized as other-empirical. The total number of citations remained stable across the review period and averaged just over 52 per year. Of these, 80% were from nonempirical articles, 13.7% were from other-empirical articles, 4% were from applied articles, 1.4% were from basic articles, and 0.9% were from observational articles. An "obliteration" analysis was also conducted to identify articles that employed Skinner's verbal operant terms but did not cite Verbal Behavior. This analysis identified 44 additional articles, suggesting that a degree of obliteration had occurred in the half century since the publication of Verbal Behavior. In particular, the analysis suggests that the verbal operant of manding has sufficient presence in the applied empirical literature to render citation of Verbal Behavior redundant. Overall, Verbal Behavior continues to make an important contribution to the psychological literature.     

NYBORG'S ANALYTICAL ROD-AND-FRAME SCORING SYSTEM: A COMPARATIVE STUDY IN ZIMBABWE*

Witkin's method of scoring the Rod-and-Frame Test (RFT), most generally used, has been criticized by Nyborg. On the basis of studies with Danish students he provided evidence that RFT performance is multi-determined, and devised a new scoring method to take this into account. The present study, conducted in Zimbabwe, replicated and extended Nyborg's work. The RFT scores of 80 subjects differing in ethnicity, sex and type of course were analyzed employing both Witkin's and Nyborg's methods. Our results confirm Nyborg's finding that factors other than frame dependence are involved in RFT performance, as indicated by differences in response patterns as a function of ethnic group, sex and type of course. It is suggested that Nyborg's scoring method is a valuable tool for the purpose of clarifying the nature and sources of cultural differences in RFT performance.     

The fruits of a functional approach for psychological science

The current paper introduces relational frame theory (RFT) as a functional contextual approach to complex human behaviour and examines how this theory has contributed to our understanding of several key phenomena in psychological science. I will first briefly outline the philosophical foundation of RFT and then examine its conceptual basis and core concepts. Thereafter, I provide an overview of the empirical findings and applications that RFT has stimulated in a number of key domains such as language development, linguistic generativity, rule‐following, analogical reasoning, intelligence, theory of mind, psychopathology and implicit cognition.     

Field-dependence, extraversion and perception of the vertical: empirical and theoretical perspectives of the rod-and-frame test.

Using conventional scoring procedures for the Rod-and-frame Test (RFT), extraversion was shown to interact with field-dependence (defined by scores on the Hidden-shapes Test), with the field dependent extraverts being most inaccurate performers on the rod and frame. Of greater importance, serious questions were raised about theoretical and empirical aspects of the relationship between paper-and-pencil measures of field-dependence and performance on the rod and frame, and it was concluded that "what has...been demonstrated over the past ten years is the reliability of a relationship of questionable validity."     

Fairness heuristic theory: valid but not empirical

Fairness heuristic theory is concerned with how people react to outcomes of their dealings with authorities, and makes some predictions concerning the relationship between perceived fairness of procedures, perceived fairness of outcomes and acceptance of outcomes. Although considerable effort has been put into establishing empirical evidence for the theory, it is argued that such efforts have no bearing upon the truth of the theory. Central propositions of fairness heuristic theory that have recently been tested empirically are examined and found to be nonempirical and noncontingent. The propositions, it is argued, are necessary truths of commonsense psychology that are not falsifiable by empirical outcomes. Hence, empirical research designed to test them, it is argued, is fruitless and misguided.     

Assessing Psychological Inflexibility Pertaining to Self in Patients With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Using an Indirect Measure of (Nonassociative) Propositions

Relational frame theory (RFT) is a modern behavioral account of human language and cognition, which focuses on relations or propositions, rather than associations, as core explanatory constructs. In an attempt to measure such propositions, RFT researchers have developed the implicit relational assessment procedure (IRAP). It has been argued that the size of an IRAP effect may provide a metric for psychological inflexibility. The current study aimed to determine whether psychological inflexibility, as measured by the self-focused Natural Language-IRAP (NL-IRAP), would be higher in a clinical sample of individuals with a diagnosis of PTSD (N = 29) when compared to a nonclinical sample. Subsequently, the study investigated whether the self-focused NL-IRAP could be used to predict the presence of a clinical diagnosis, using a ROC analysis. As predicted, higher levels of psychological inflexibility were observed for the clinical group. The self-focused NL-IRAP also correctly classified the presence of PTSD (AUC = 76%) with a sensitivity level of 79.3% and a specificity level of 59.2%. Overall, the use of the IRAP as a nonassociative clinical measure appears promising.     

In search of meaning: values in modern clinical behavior analysis

Skinner described behavior analysis as the field of values and purpose. However, he defined these concepts in terms of a history of reinforcement and failed to specify whether and how human and nonhuman values might differ. Human values have been seen as theoretically central within a number of nonbehavioral traditions in psychology, including humanism and positive psychology. However, these approaches have failed to provide explanations of the behavior-environment relations involved in valuing that might allow prediction and influence with respect to this phenomenon. Modern clinical behavior analysis in the form of acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), however, succeeds in providing a functional definition of human values that meets this latter criterion. ACT is rooted in behavior analysis and relational frame theory (RFT) and defines values in terms of verbally established motivation. ACT empirical research into values has begun to blossom in recent years, and ACT-RFT researchers are currently investigating the concept at the most basic empirical level as well as in the applied clinical arena, heralding new interest in and insight into values within clinical behavioral psychology.     

Trends in the creativity literature: An analysis of research in the journal of creative behavior (1967–1989)

Abstract

Many have noted a renewed interest in creativity. However, even with a 40‐year history, little effort has been directed at the study of changes in the field, and no effort has been made to develop a historical perspective of the work being conducted. Which topics have consistently been examined? Which have gone out of favor, and which have shown surges of interest? The present investigation addressed these questions by examining 311 articles, representing a 23‐year span (1967–1989). This span began in 1967 with the founding of the Journal of Creative Behavior. Predictions were based on previous literature reviews and similar studies conducted in other areas of the social sciences. One prediction was that there would be increases in the number of authors per article (women authors in particular) and in the total number of references. Furthermore, empirical articles were expected to be on the rise, as were articles focusing on social and educational issues. The number of articles concerned with personality and related topics were expected to show a decrease. Results generally supported the hypotheses: The number of authors, number of female authors, number of references, and social and educational articles all showed upward trends. However, the number of empirical articles did not increase during the 23‐year period. Overall, the findings suggest that trend‐analytic research is viable and informative. It tells us not only where the field has gone, but also gives hints as to where it may be going.     

Trends in the measurement of social validity

Since its inception in the mid-1970s, social validity has provided applied behavior analysts with a critical measure of the social impact and importance of their interventions. Recent discussion, however, has questioned the use of this construct in regard to the frequency and types of social validty measures employed in research. Despite the ensuing discussion, virtually no quantitative information has been made available to frame various perspectives and opinions. The purpose of this report is to present a content analysis of social validity measures used over the previous 20 years. Social validity was assessed along three dimensions: (a) type of assessment, (b) focus of assessment, and (c) time of assessment. Articles published in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (1968-1990) and Behavior Modification (1977-1990) were surveyed. The results of the content analysis indicate that current applications of social validation procedures are presented in 20% of the articles surveyed. The majority of articles used subjective evaluation of outcomes following intervention to assess social validity. In addition, the data indicated that normative comparison was a rarely used method of social validation and that its use has been decreasing over time.     

NONEMPIRICAL REALITY: TRANSCENDING THE PHYSICAL AND SPIRITUAL IN THE ORDER OF THE ONE

I describe characteristic phenomena of quantum physics that suggest that reality appears to us in two domains: the open and well‐known domain of empirical, material things—the realm of actuality—and a hidden and invisible domain of nonempirical, non‐material forms—the realm of potentiality. The nonempirical forms are part of physical reality because they contain the empirical possibilities of the universe and can manifest themselves in the empirical world. Two classes of nonempirical states are discussed: the superposition states of microphysical entities, which are nonempirical because observation destroys them, and the virtual states of material systems, which are nonempirical because they are empty. The non‐empirical part to physical reality represents a predetermined and hidden order that exists before it is empirical, and the visible world is an emanation out of it. I discuss consequences for our understanding of human nature, the origin of life, and human values. Reality is an indivisible wholeness that is aware of its processes, like a Cosmic Spirit, and it reveals its awareness in the mindlike properties of elementary processes as well as in the human consciousness. Thus, one is led to G. W. F. Hegel's thesis that the Cosmic Spirit is thinking in us.     

Light intensity in the rod-and-frame test reconsidered

Abstract.— Previously collected data (Nyborg, 1972) on the perception of the vertical in the Rod-and-Frame Test (RFT) were reanalysed according to the method of signed errors presented by Nyborg (1974). Regression analysis showed no systematic relationship between light intensity and frame dependence and that the effect of light intensity on the perception of vertical in the RFT in general is negligible, thus confirming the conclusions drawn originally.     

Disability research in counseling psychology journals: a 20-year content analysis

We conducted an exploratory content analysis of disability research in 5 major counseling psychology journals between 1990 and 2010. The goal was to review the counseling psychology literature to better understand the prevalence of disability research, identify research methods most often conducted, and elucidate the types of concerns most studied. We searched 5 journals (Journal of Counseling & Development, Journal of Counseling Psychology, The Counseling Psychologist, Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, and Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology) using keywords derived from disability terms defined by the Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA). Articles were categorized by methodology and disability category examined. We found that disability research continues to comprise an extremely small amount (from less than 1% to 2.7%) of the counseling psychology literature, with the frequency of articles plateauing in recent years. The research design of articles published has changed, with an increased number of empirical articles and a decrease in literature reviews. We conclude by calling for increased empirical investigation of disability among journals specific to counseling psychology to recognize disability as an important aspect of diversity within the field.     

Recent advances in the psychology of creativity / Avances recientes en psicología de la creatividad

Abstract

This introduction to Studies in Psychology presents a collection of theoretical and empirical works covering various areas of research into the psychology of creativity. This issue contains five articles that present theories or review evidence regarding various approaches to creativity and three articles that are empirical reports. The articles cover a broad range of topics related to the psychology of creativity. Thus, this collection of articles highlights the fact that research into creativity expands our basic understanding of the functioning of the mind, has an impact on other related areas of psychological research and has an increasing number of applications.     

Relational operants: processes and implications: a response to Palmer's review of Relational Frame Theory

Palmer has recently criticized Relational Frame Theory (RFT) on the grounds that it has developed data in search of a principle. In this reply, we show that he has done so by attacking fundamental concepts within behavior analysis itself, including the functional nature of an operant and contingencies of reinforcement as a behavioral process. His claim that RFT appeals to new behavioral principles to explain the development of relational operants is shown to be incorrect: As with any operant, RFT appeals to a history of contacted consistencies in contingencies across multiple ex-emplars to explain them. New principles only emerge later as a logically necessary extension of such operants if they exist--a view that Palmer failed to address or appreciate. Palmer's desire to see the use of methods other than matching-to-sample is proper but already largely satisfied in the empirical literature on RFT. We show Palmer's defense of Skinner's definition of verbal behavior to be illogical and unresponsive to the empirical challenge behavior analysis faces. Palmer's alternative common sense mediational associationistic account is another in more than a century of such accounts, all of which have failed empirically. At its root, Palmer's criticism is based on a mechanistic philosophy that is hostile to a traditional functional behavior analytic approach.     

Solving the rod-and-frame test in a tachistoscopic presentation: Effects of stimulus size and perceptual style

This research was undertaken to demonstrate, with correlational evidence, that presenting the rod-and-frame test (RIT) with either limited (tachistoscopic) or unlimited (Oltman’s, 1968, portable RFT) exposure time does not significantly affect the ranking of subjects. The underlying hypothesis is that the intersubject variability of performance on the portable RFT is due essentially to differences in sensitivity to the optostatic vection that appears automatically and almost immediately. Results of the tachistoscopic test show that the effect of angular size of the stimulus is similar to that described in the literature for unlimited time situations, and that subjects’ ranking is very similar regardless of the exposure time (W = .80). However, although a difference is observed between the means of low and high achievers in both types of RFT, intraindividual intertask homogeneity (correlation coefficient) is not verified in each of these subgroups. From these results, one can distinguish two processes in the RFT: the first, vections, has to do with the subject’s postural orientation and seems to playa great role in organizing interindividual differences. The second process, a more cognitive one, has a less striking effect and has to do with the selection of reference frames in perceptual organization.     

Improving Motor Performance During Initial Skills Acquisition Through Regulatory Fit: An Experimental Study Based on Ball Throwing Task and Small Financial Reward

Regulatory focus theory (RFT) suggests that performance will be enhanced when there is a match between individual characteristics and environmental cues. Given that the application of RFT in the context of motor performance has been rarely examined, a ball-throwing task with small financial reward was conducted to test the theory. A total of 51 undergraduate students participated in this study. They were randomly assigned to either the promotion- or prevention-oriented task (which were different in terms of how the reward was instructed to be given). Results indicated that students performed better on ball throwing when the given instruction fit their relatively dominant regulatory focus. This finding supports the expectations of RFT. Implications and limitations were discussed.     

A method for analysing performance in the rod-and-frame test

Abstract.— Scoring only the unsigned (absolute) errors in the Rod-and-Frame Test (RFT) is questioned because the method confounds a number of variables. Another way of scoring the RFT is proposed which differentiates between (1) the subject's constant error, (2) the effect of the tilted frame, and (3) the rod starting position effect. The method also allows estimation of the response consistency of the subject. What is more, the values for each subject of the constant error, of the frame tilt effect, and of the rod starting position effect may be tested for significance on the basis of the degree of response consistency observed for that particular subject, thus making the new method more person-oriented than the unsigned error method.     

Process analytic models of creative capacities: Evidence for the combination and reorganization process

Many cognitive processes contribute to the generation of novel problem solutions. One important process involves the combination and reorganization of extant knowledge structures. The present study provided empirical evidence for the significance of this process. Subjects were presented with exemplars drawn from multiple a priori categories. They were asked to (a) combine these a priori categories to generate a new category, (b) provide exemplars of the elements included in this category, and (c) write a story involving this category. The quality and originality of these products was evaluated under conditions where the relatedness of the a priori categories was varied along with exemplar typicality and instructional set. It was found that category relationships and instructional set influenced solution quality and originality. The implications of these findings for understanding creative problem solving and the category combination process were considered     

Patterns of perceptual change in the ages 7 to 15 years: a cross-sectional study of the Rod-and-Frame Test and the spiral aftereffect technique

Abstract.— Studied cross-sectional changes in Rod-and-Frame Test (RFT) deviation scores and spiral aftereffect (SAE) duration scores in 124 boys and 124 girls aged 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15 years. The gradual decrease in magnitude of RFT deviation with age reached its minimum at the age of 13. A sex difference, disappearing with age, was adequately described by a measure of performance change, boys counteracting to a higher extent than girls the frame influence as the RFT trials proceeded. An increase in SAE duration, found previously with 5-year-olds, appeared here with 111-year-olds but later in a series of ten trials rather than initially as with the younger children. Relations between RFT and SAE scores were mainly found with 7-year-olds, i.e. at an age when per-ceptual-figural regulations may still dominate the cognitive organization of some children. The SAE results are viewed within a multi-line developmental model characterizing cognitive growth as a dialectic process of progressive shifts between objectivized and self-centered modes of representation.