任务难度对焦点转换和焦点内信息激活的影响

设置两种难度的比较任务(倒序数2和数3)和一个探测任务(倒序数1),探讨:(1)排除Voigt等研究中数字启动效应后,任务难度对焦点转换的影响;(2)任务难度对焦点内信息激活的影响.结果表明:(1)ft务难度影响焦点转换代价,即任务越难,焦点转换代价越大;(2)任务难度影响焦点内信息激活水平,即任务越难,激活水平越低.这提示:任务难度对焦点转换的影响是多方面的.     

市场信息整合的创造性思维机制初探

采用个别测试和集体测试相结合的方法, 辅以个别访谈等技术, 运用自编的实验测试材料, 通过两个实验探索市场信息的量、关键启发信息的突出性等对商业投资问题的思维决策结果的影响, 初步探讨了市场信息整合的创造性思维过程和机制。实验结果发现, 提供给被试的市场信息越多, 信息整合的问题空间越大, 其整合过程难度越大; 在问题空间进行搜索时, 被试需要抓住关键启发信息形成一个初始意向, 明确进一步搜索的思维方向; 初始意向形成后, 被试须筛选必要信息、排除冗余信息, 并进一步整合有用信息, 使初始意向更加精致化, 最终形成一个“可盈利的完善的投资方案”。     

反事实思维与后悔的关系：调节模式的调节作用

已有研究表明反事实思维越多则后悔越强烈。本研究试图通过两项实验分别探讨特质性、情境性调节模式是否影响反事实思维与后悔之间的关系。结果表明：特质性调节模式及情境性调节模式均对反事实思维与后悔之间的关系具有调节作用,具体来说,针对情境性调节模式而言,运动模式下加法式思维越多则后悔越轻微,评估模式下加法式思维越多则后悔越强烈;针对特质性调节模式而言,运动模式下加法式思维越多则后悔越轻微。     

父亲养育对2岁儿童社会性发展的影响:气质的调节作用

旨在考察父亲养育、儿童气质与其社会性发展的关系。让355名2岁儿童的父亲报告自身养育方式、儿童气质及儿童的社会性发展状况。结果发现:(1)父亲越严厉,儿童的内隐问题行为越多;父亲越鼓励成就与独立,儿童的问题行为越少,社会能力越好;(2)儿童抑制控制能力越高,其社会能力越好;儿童越害羞,其内隐问题行为越多;(3)父亲严厉与儿童外显问题行为之间的关系随儿童抑制控制能力的不同而不同;父亲鼓励社交与保护与儿童问题行为和社会能力之间的关系随儿童交际性的不同而不同。本研究的结果表明,父亲养育对儿童的社会性发展的影响随着儿童气质的不同而不同。     

自定步调学习时间的习惯性反应：来自眼动的证据

习惯性反应指学习者根据自身阅读习惯来进行学习时间分配,它通常由词对位置这一外部线索激发。研究运用眼动记录技术,采用Metcalfe范式探讨词对位置和难度对学习时间分配的影响,以检验自定步调学习时间的习惯性反应。结果发现：（1）在自定步调总学习时间上,学习者倾向于对难度越大的项目分配越多的学习时间;（2）在前期自定步调学习进程上,当词对位置为易-中-难条件时,学习者倾向于优先在容易项目上分配较多的学习时间,接着是中等难度项目,最后是困难项目;当词对位置为难-中-易条件时,结果相反。这说明学习者的自定步调总学习时间受项目难度驱动,而前期自定步调学习时间受习惯性反应影响。     

不同干扰刺激对成人数量估计的影响

研究采用自行设计的图形材料,考察了不同干扰刺激(纯靶刺激;干扰刺激与靶刺激数量相同;干扰刺激是靶刺激数量的2倍)对成人完成数量估计任务的影响.30名硕士生参加了本实验.行为数据和口头报告资料分析显示:1)反应时随数量估计任务难度的增加而不断增长;2)干扰刺激越多,任务越复杂,成人估计的误差率越高,准确性越低;3)成人存在多重数字表征形式,完成数量估计任务时主要采用线性表征,但随着干扰刺激物的增加,运用对数表征的趋势愈加明显.     

外框数目、线索数目和线索类型对返回抑制的影响

采用被试内重复测量设计和经典的线索—靶子实验范式,考查了外框数目（4和8）、线索数目（1和3）、不同线索类型（on-off线索（即线索出现后消失）、onset线索（即线索持续呈现））对返回抑制的影响,发现靶子潜在位置数目越多反应时越长,返回抑制量越小;线索数目越少反应时越长,返回抑制量越大;onset线索反应时长于on-off线索,onset线索产生的返回抑制量大于on-off线索。这表明空间工作记忆负载和记忆痕迹会影响返回抑制。     

同伴互动小组结构对小学生创造性问题提出的影响

采用4（小组结构）*2（任务难度）混合实验设计,以149名小学四年级学生为被试,考察了在不同任务难度情景中,同伴互动小组结构对创造性问题提出的影响。结果表明：（1）与单独学习相比,同伴互动的学习方式更能促进学生创造性问题提出的发展;（2）小组结构对学生的创造性问题提出有显著影响,同质组、自选组学生的创造性问题提出得分显著高于控制组;（3）任务难度对学生的创造性问题提出有显著影响,低难度任务情境下的创造性问题提出得分显著高于在高难度情境;（4）小组结构与任务难度对学生创造性问题提出的影响存在显著的交互效应。     

结果冲突与作业难度对双重作业绩效的影响

运用单作业和双作业操作探讨结果冲突与作业难度对双重作业绩效的影响。结果表明：（１）信息干扰对双作业操作有着明显的影响。信息干扰越大,结果冲突效应越大,双作业操作绩效越差。（２）作业难度对双作业绩效有明显影响。作业难度越大,双作业操作绩效越差。根据实验结果,本研究提出了双因素假设：信息干扰和资源竞争是影响双作业操作绩效的两个主要因素。     

学前教育年限与母亲受教育水平对农村一年级 小学生学校适应的影响

研究采用同伴提名法、教师和家长报告法,对农村135名一年级小学生进行了为期一年的追踪调查,在此基础上,考察了学前教育年限、母亲受教育水平与学校适应之间的关系。结果表明:(1)学前教育年限越长,小学生越多地表现出积极社会行为,但这种优势仅体现在小学入学初期;(2)母亲受教育水平越低,小学生越多地表现出敏感退缩行为和受拒绝同伴关系;(3)对于母亲受教育水平较低的小学生,学前教育年限越长,其攻击冒犯行为越多;而对于母亲受教育水平较高的小学生,学前教育年限越长,其攻击冒犯行为越少。可见,母亲受教育水平与学前教育年限相互作用,共同影响儿童发展结果,且母亲受教育水平的影响作用更为明显。     

Converging evidence for the functional significance of imagery in problem solving

Two kinds of explanations have been offered for the process by which three-term series problems are solved, one in terms of linguistic principles and the other in terms of visual-spatial imagery. Two experiments are reported in which three different classes of operations are brought to bear on the problem: (1) Manipulation of stimulus attributes (characteristics of problems), (2) manipulation of variables that selectively encourage or inhibit the use of imagery (facilitating instructions; the suppression of visualization by reading), and (3) measurement of relevant individual differences (spatial-reasoning ability). All of the results indicate that imagery plays a functional but not a necessary role in the solution of three-term series problems; it is suggested that imaginal representation is functional because it reduces the load on memory. An adequate explanation of problem-solving will have to address certain general issues, such as the diversity of forms of cognitive representation and differences within and between individuals in the choice of problem-solving strategies.     

Categories of insight and their correlates: An exploration of relationships among classic‐type insight problems,rebus puzzles,remote associates and esoteric analogies

A central question in creativity concerns how insightful ideas emerge. Anecdotal examples of insightful scientific and technical discoveries include Goodyear's discovery of the vulcanization of rubber, and Mendeleev's realization that there may be gaps as he tried to arrange the elements into the Periodic Table. Although most people would regard these discoveries as insightful, cognitive psychologists have had difficulty in agreeing on whether such ideas resulted from insights or from conventional problem solving processes. One area of wide agreement among psychologists is that insight involves a process of restructuring. If this view is correct, then understanding insight and its role in problem solving will depend on a better understanding of restructuring and the characteristics that describe it. This article proposes and tests a preliminary classification of insight problems based on several restructuring characteristics: the need to redefine spatial assumptions, the need to change defined forms, the degree of misdirection involved, the difficulty in visualizing a possible solution, the number of restructuring sequences in the problem, and the requirement for figure‐ground type reversals. A second purpose of the study was to compare performance on classic spatial insight problems with two types of verbal tests that may be related to insight, the Remote Associates Test (RAT), and rebus puzzles. In doing so, we report on the results of a survey of 172 business students at the University of Waikato in New Zealand who completed classic‐type insight, RAT and rebus problems.     

EFFECTS OF PROBLEM DIFFICULTY AND REINFORCER QUALITY ON TIME ALLOCATED TO CONCURRENT ARITHMETIC PROBLEMS

Students with learning difficulties participated in two studies that analyzed the effects of problem difficulty and reinforcer quality upon time allocated to two sets of arithmetic problems reinforced according to a concurrent variable-interval 30-s variable-interval 120-s schedule. In Study 1, high- and low-difficulty arithmetic problems were systematically combined with rich and lean concurrent schedules (nickels used as reinforcers) across conditions using a single-subject design. The pairing of the high-difficulty problems with the richer schedule failed to offset time allocated to that alternative. Study 2 investigated the interactive effects of problem difficulty and reinforcer quality (nickels vs. program money) upon time allocation to arithmetic problems maintained by the concurrent schedules of reinforcement. Unlike problem difficulty, the pairing of the lesser quality reinforcer (program money) with the richer schedule reduced the time allocated to that alternative. The magnitude of this effect was greatest when combined with the low-difficulty problems. These studies have important implications for a matching law analysis of asymmetrical reinforcement variables that influence time allocation.     

难度－价值权衡情境下的项目选择及其眼动特征

本研究采用行为和眼动技术,通过设置难度—价值权衡情境,考察在学习时间有限的条件下,学习者如何选择学习项目,以及该过程如何发生。结果发现：(1)被试更多选择得分期望最高的项目,而非分值最高或最简单的项目。(2)选择学习项目的过程不存在计算项目得分期望的过程。结果表明,学习者项目选择不仅基于难度或价值,而是会权衡难度和价值,选择得分期望最高的项目。该过程不符合补偿性决策理论的预期,与非补偿性理论预期一致。     

基于关系-表征复杂性模型的数学应用题表征能力测验

基于关系-表征复杂性模型,从每道应用题涉及集合关系的嵌套程度角度事前分析其关系复杂性,编制了难度序列变化的应用题测验,以考察问题表征能力。采用该测验测查了四至七年级共165名学生,考察事前分析的合理性及表征水平随年龄的变化。结果表明:(1)事前分析对两个事后难度指标(错误率和Rasch模型分析的任务难度)的解释率分别为73.7%、78.7%;该测验得分与测查思维水平层次变化的SOLO分类测验上的得分有较高相关(r=0.65)。(2)四年级的应用题表征水平显著低于五、六、七年级,其他三个年级差异不显著;而且随着问题关系复杂性的增加,年级差异增大。这说明基于关系-表征复杂性模型的事前分析是合理的,据此编制的测验能够测查表征水平随年龄的变化。     

On The Infinitely Hard Problem Of Consciousness

I show that the recursive structure of Leibniz's Law requires agents to perform infinitely many operations to psychologically identify the referents of phenomenal and physical concepts, even though the referents of ordinary concepts (e.g. Hesperus and Phosphorus) can be identified in a finite number of steps. The resulting problem resembles the hard problem of consciousness in the fact that it appears (and indeed is) unsolvable by anyone for whom it arises, and in the fact that it invites dualist and eliminativist responses. Moreover, if this is the hard problem then we can predict that regardless of the strength of the argument for physicalism, and regardless of physicalism's truth, an ineliminable dissatisfaction is bound to accompany any physicalist theory of consciousness. Accordingly, I suggest that this is the hard problem of consciousness, and therefore that the hard problem arises from a recursively degenerate application of Leibniz's Law.     

认知诊断中多分属性与二分属性的对比研究

摘 要：Karelitz（2004）和詹沛达等（2016）认为1个多分属性内部(Lk+1)个水平的关系相当于Lk个部分满足线型层级关系的二分属性。本研究的目的是通过比较多分属性模型和二分属性模型的判准率,从而验证多分属性和二分属性间是否存在以上关系。结果表明：当属性个数较少时,两个模型的模式判准率相当,随着属性个数增加,多分属性模型的模式判准率高于二分属性模型的模式判准率。结论：在一定程度上,多分属性和二分属性之间确实存在以上关系,但两者并非完全等价,二者间的差异随着属性个数增加更加明显。     

SOME GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ABOUT CHILDREN'S STRATEGY CHOICE PROCEDURES

This article presents conclusions that have emerged from my recent work on how children choose strategies on familiar tasks such as arithmetic, time-telling, and spelling. Among these conclusions are that children use diverse strategies on many tasks; that ignoring this diversity of strategies can lead to seriously flawed cognitive models; that children's pattern of strategy choices have considerable adaptive value; that children's strategy choices do not always reflect the operation of metacognitive processes; that associative knowledge directs at least some strategy choices; that among the factors that influence the development of strategy choices are the difficulty of executing backup strategies, the impact of related problems and operations, and the frequency of problem presentation; and that individual differences in both knowledge and cognitive style influence strategy choices.     

解答加减文字题中情境复杂性对问题难度的影响

过去人们基于语言复杂性探讨加减文字题的难度成因,本研究将探讨情境复杂性对问题难度的影响。被试为北京市一城区小学二年级共108名学生（男52,女56）,平均年龄8岁4个月。采用2(问题类型：“给”问题和“拿”问题)×2(事件类型：增多事件和减少事件)混合设计。对于“给”问题,增多题中各语句的主语不一致,减少题中一致,对于“拿”问题则相反。根据语言复杂性解释,因为各语句的主语一致有利于加工,“给”问题有减少题加工优势,“拿”问题有增多题加工优势;根据情境复杂性解释,因为减少情境有利于加工,两类问题均有减少题加工优势。实验表明不论“给”问题还是“拿”问题,均有减少题的加工优势,支持情境复杂性解释