无意识目标对道德取向的调节作用

已有研究表明目标可以在无意识的条件下被激活并自动地引导行为以达成目标,但该过程是否通过调节心理准备状态实现尚不清楚。本研究考察了无意识目标对个体道德取向的影响。实验1通过语义启动方式激活被试的成就目标,结果发现,与未激活任何目标的被试相比,激活了无意识成就目标的被试更偏向功利主义道德取向。实验2激活被试母亲的概念,结果发现这部分被试比对照组更偏向道义主义道德取向。上述结果表明,自动激活的目标可以影响个体的道德取向,使个体面对道德情境时能做出更合适的行为以达成目标。     

权力、任务框架对自我和为他人决策时风险偏好的影响

采用情境回忆任务启动被试的权力,并引入收益和损失两种任务框架,综合考察权力高低、任务框架对自我决策和为他人决策时风险偏好的影响。结果表明:(1)在为他人决策中,启动高权力被试有更强的风险偏好,而自我决策中,高、低权力启动组被试风险偏好上无显著差异;(2)在为他人决策中,被试在收益框架和损失框架下的风险偏好差异不显著,而在自我决策中,损失框架下的风险偏好显著高于收益框架;(3)低权力启动的被试,在损失框架下,为他人决策的风险偏好要小于自我决策,而在收益框架下差异不显著;高权力启动的被试无论在收益框架还是损失框架,自我-他人风险决策都不存在显著差异。     

无意识成就目标激活与追求:来自ERP的证据

为探索无意识目标激活的神经机制,采用单因素被试内设计,自变量为目标激活阶段无意识成就目标激活(有、无),因变量为阈下呈现的成就目标相关词(成就目标无关词)出现后所诱发的ERP成分,以及目标追求阶段被试判断两位数加减法算术式的正确率和平均反应时。结果发现:(1)无意识成就目标能够通过阈下启动得以激活;(2)阈下呈现的成就目标相关词诱发了一个明显的N200成分,可能反映了大脑执行控制功能在个体无意识成就目标激活与追求中的重要作用。     

风险偏好预测中的性别差异和框架效应

11 8名大学生被试在得益和损失两种任务框架下对自己、其他男性和女性的风险偏好进行了预测。结果发现 ,被试在损失框架下对各类对象风险偏好的预测均高于得益框架 ,且都高估了男性的风险偏好 ,低估了女性的风险偏好。在损失框架下 ,女性被试对各类对象的风险偏好预测高于男性的预测。研究认为 ,性别原型知识、任务框架和即时情绪共同影响被试的风险偏好预测。     

无意识目标：激活与追求

目标自动激活模型认为,目标是行为满意状态或结果在个体头脑中的表征,它能够通过相关情境自动激活。无意识目标的激活方式有语义激活、工具激活和人际激活。无意识目标追求与有意识目标追求在目标实现、目标投射和动机特征方面相似,但其行为产生机制有所不同。未来研究应该对无意识目标的机制及其具体应用进行深入的探讨     

无意识目标追求的行为特征、机制及影响因素

无意识目标追求是指个体自动地追求由情境线索激活的目标, 而全然不知目标对自己行为的导向作用。无意识目标追求具有灵活性、抑制性和坚持性。无意识目标追求经由行动的无意识准备和目标价值的自动评估与努力过程实现。积极情绪、内隐态度和人际关系影响无意识目标追求。未来研究需要进一步探讨无意识目标追求的影响因素, 完善无意识目标追求的机制, 探究无意识目标追求结果对个体心理和行为的影响, 提高研究结果的生态效度, 拓展应用研究。     

无意识工作激励:定义、模型及展望

无意识工作激励是指由外部环境自动诱导出个体努力行为的过程,并且这种自动诱导的过程无法被个体所内省。目前已经被发现的无意识工作激励过程包括自动化评价,无意识行为模仿,态度、特质和刻板印象的激活,以及无意识目标激活等。从内在机制来看,镜像神经元理论可解释无意识行为模仿,无意识行为选择模型可用来解释无意识目标激励。未来应侧重研究无意识工作激励与有意识工作激励的关系,发展新的研究方法,并更深入地探索无意识工作激励的内在机制。     

决策者角色及相关变量对风险偏好的影响

采用IAT技术测查被试的内隐自尊, 并引入收益和损失两种任务框架, 综合探讨了内隐自尊水平、任务得失框架对自我决策和为他人决策时风险偏好的影响。结果发现：(1)在收益框架下, 被试为他人决策时更冒险, 而在损失框架下, 为自我和他人决策的风险偏好无显著差异; (2)与为自我决策相比, 低内隐自尊者为他人决策时更冒险, 而高内隐自尊者为自我和他人决策的风险偏好无显著差异; (3)内隐自尊水平与任务框架的交互作用及内隐自尊水平、任务框架和决策者角色之间的三级交互作用均不显著。依据相关的理论和发现对这种结果进行了分析和讨论。     

成就动机与机会-威胁认知

采用问卷法探讨 3类变量即成就动机、风险情景中的冒险倾向以及对风险情景的机会 -威胁认知的关系。结果发现相对争取成功动机而言 ,回避失败动机对预测个体的机会 -威胁认知状况更为敏感 ;研究也显示 ,高成就动机组是以强烈的争取成功的倾向导致其对机会的积极认知 ;低成就动机组则是以对失败回避的趋力强化了威胁认知。个体在风险情景中的行为倾向与认知反应显得更为复杂。首先 ,框架效应不是普遍但的确存在于某类风险情景中 ,方差分析证实风险情景与框架间的交互作用达到显著性水平 ,这说明被试保守倾向的反应受到情景与框架效应的交互影响 ;其次 ,风险情景即“获益”和“损失”极大地影响着被试的风险反应模式     

无意识目标启动的定义、机制及应用

无意识目标与社会态度、刻板印象和图式等一样, 是行为的满意状态或结果在个体头脑中的一种表征, 包含有目标设定、追求情境和追求手段等内容。这些内容能够被环境中的刺激自动激活, 在意识不到的情况下影响人的心理和行为。无意识目标启动的概念和其他心理表征的启动不同, 无意识目标启动能够促使带有动机性的行为出现, 启动线索的影响不会随着时间的推移而消失。无意识目标启动的自变量与自身心理状态和环境中他人的影响有关, 无意识目标启动的因变量与任务表现和社会关系的处理有关。“知觉-行为模型”、“无意识行为选择模型”、“评价准备模型”和“情感因素模型”能够分别从“无意识”和“目标”两个角度对无意识目标启动的心理机制进行解释。无意识目标启动原理在商业、教育、医疗等领域当中有着广泛的应用前景, 为了更好地完善理论研究和进行实际应用, 今后应该更加重视无意识目标启动的脑机制研究。     

The role of goals and goal barriers in predicting the outcomes of intentional actions in the contexts of narrative text

ABSTRACT

Predictions about human behaviour can be influenced by the presence and status of goals. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of an active goal and barriers to that goal on predictions about outcomes experienced by agents. Participants read stories describing characters with goals. The extent that there were barriers to those goals was varied. Participants predicted what happens next in the story, both prior to and after barrier removal. There was support for a goal barrier hypothesis, where the conditions for predicting goal completion involved removing conditions that prevent a goal being achieved (Experiments 1 and 2). At the same time, unachieved goals were more accessible to working memory than completed goals, regardless of a barrier (Experiment 3). These results suggest that participants deliberately decided when it was appropriate to use goal information to predict outcomes of intentional actions conducted by the agents in the stories.     

Motives and health-related behaviour: incremental prediction by implicit motives

The study assessed whether implicit motives, which operate largely outside of conscious awareness, can provide any incremental prediction of health-related behaviour over that provided by explicit motives. In a cross-sectional survey study, 251 young adults completed measures of sun exposure behaviour, sun protection behaviour and risk-related sexual behaviour, participatory motives for these behaviours, life goals (representing explicit dispositional motives), and the Single Category Implicit Association Test adapted to measure implicit motives. Analysis was by structural equation modelling. Power life goal (the goal of asserting oneself and seeking social status) predicted sun exposure behaviour and risk-related sexual behaviour. Altruism life goal (acting for the welfare of others) predicted sun protection behaviour and inversely predicted risk-related sexual behaviour. These effects of life goals were mediated by participatory motives. Implicit dispositional achievement motive (the largely unconscious need to succeed at challenging tasks) inversely predicted sun exposure behaviour, this effect being mediated by a reduction in appearance-related participatory motive for sun exposure. Implicit dispositional achievement motive also inversely predicted risk-related sexual behaviour, this effect being direct. It is concluded that implicit dispositional motives can provide some incremental prediction of health-related behaviour. Possibilities for further research, including the experimental manipulation of motive engagement, are discussed.     

Egalitarian goals trigger stereotype inhibition: A proactive form of stereotype control

Stereotype activation is often described as beyond control, unable to be prevented by willing it or engaging the self-regulatory system. Four experiments illustrate that this initial stage of the stereotyping process is controllable. Stereotypes are shown to be implicitly inhibited as part of a goal shielding process. In each experiment, egalitarian goals are triggered through a task in which participants contemplate a past failure at being egalitarian to African American men. This is followed in each experiment by a task that measures stereotype activation/inhibition using reaction times to words (either control words or stereotype-relevant words) that follow the presentation of either faces of Black or White men. The first two experiments examine participants with egalitarian goals versus those with a control goal, whereas the last two experiments examine people with egalitarian goals versus those whose egalitarian strivings have been satisfied (by contemplating success at being egalitarian). Only participants with egalitarian goals exhibit stereotype inhibition, and this occurs despite the fact that they lack awareness of the inhibition and lack the conscious intent to inhibit stereotypes at the time the response is made.     

无意识自我控制目标启动对自我损耗的补偿效应

本研究基于对无意识目标启动的研究,采用阈上、阈下启动方式探讨无意识目标启动对自我损耗的补偿作用。实验1发现,阈上无意识目标启动能够有效提高自我控制,促进自控表现。实验2发现,阈下无意识目标启动对自我损耗存在补偿效应。上述结果提示,通过无意识启动方式激活自我控制目标,可以克服自我损耗的不良效应,且无需意识参与。     

Achievement Goals in Social Interactions: Learning with Mastery vs. Performance Goals

Little work has studied achievement goals in social interaction situations. The present experiment aimed at contributing to this matter by showing the potential of social interaction (in particular disagreement) to moderate the effects of achievement goals on learning. Participants were led to think they interacted with a partner, sharing opinions about a text that they were studying. Mastery and performance goals were manipulated. During the “interaction,” they received either disagreement or agreement from this bogus partner. Results showed that a condition in which mastery goals were induced led to better learning than a performance goal condition only when the partner disagreed. No differences between goal conditions were observed when the partner agreed. Implications for achievement goal research are discussed. Part of this work was conducted during Céline Darnon’s doctoral dissertation under the supervision of Fabrizio Butera, and was written during Céline Darnon’s post-doctorate at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA, thanks to a Fulbright fellowship.     

New Directions in Goal-Setting Theory

ABSTRACT— Goal-setting theory is summarized regarding the effectiveness of specific, difficult goals; the relationship of goals to affect; the mediators of goal effects; the relation of goals to self-efficacy; the moderators of goal effects; and the generality of goal effects across people, tasks, countries, time spans, experimental designs, goal sources (i.e., self-set, set jointly with others, or assigned), and dependent variables. Recent studies concerned with goal choice and the factors that influence it, the function of learning goals, the effect of goal framing, goals and affect (well-being), group goal setting, goals and traits, macro-level goal setting, and conscious versus subconscious goals are described. Suggestions are given for future research.     

Rightly crossing the Rubicon: Evaluating goal self-concordance prior to selection helps people choose more intrinsic goals

We studied how people “cross the Rubicon” when making personal goal selections. In Studies 1 and 2 participants rated the self-concordance of four candidate goals, two with intrinsic and two with extrinsic content, before selecting two goals to actually pursue. Intrinsic goal content predicted higher self-concordance, as did matching between goal content and participant values and motives. Self-concordance in turn explained participants’ actual goal-selections. In longitudinal Study 2, intrinsic goal selection predicted increased well-being. In experimental Study 3, participants randomly assigned to rate candidate goals prior to selection made more intrinsic selections on average, compared to those not afforded this opportunity. We conclude that considering one’s motivations for various candidate goals prior to selecting among them can improve one’s goal choices.     

Unconscious Goal Pursuit in Real-Life Organizations: Commentary on Chen,Latham, Piccolo,and Itzchakov (2020)

The research reviewed in Chen et al.’s (this issue) meta-analysis shows that a person’s goal pursuits and motivational states can be induced by external means, or ‘primes’, and then operate in much the same way as if the person made a conscious intention to pursue that goal. Previous demonstrations of this phenomena in psychology laboratories are now extended to real life organizations and settings and shown to produce even stronger effects than before. The research reviewed also further demonstrates the close similarity between unconscious and conscious goal operation, belying the Freudian idea of a separate unconscious mind. Implications for the ethicality of influencing employees without their awareness are discussed.