Perfectionism, beliefs, and adjustment in dating relationships

Two studies examined the extent to which dimensions of perfectionism are associated with indices of relationship beliefs, behaviors, and dyadic adjustment. In Study 1, 69 students in dating relationships completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and a multidimensional measure of relationship beliefs. In addition, partici-pants completed self-report measures of positive and negative relationship behaviors, and global measures of liking and loving. In Study 2, 91 students in dating relation-ships completed a battery of measures including the MPS and scales assessing perfec-tionism cognitions and perfectionistic self presentation. They also completed mea-sures of dyadic adjustment and limerence (i.e., intense, obsessive low with fears of rejection). Collectively, the findings indicated that individuals with high levels of self-oriented perfectionism and other-oriented perfectionism have stronger relationship beliefs in the areas of communication, trust, and support, suggesting that these perfec-tionists have high relationship standards in these particular areas. Although social prescribed perfectionism had little association with specific relationship beliefs, so-cially prescribed perfectionism was associated with a tendency to display destructive relationship responses (i.e., exit, neglect, and insensitivity), lower dyadic adjustment, and various aspects of limerence, including obsessive preoccupations and emotional dependence on the dating partner. Perfectionistic self-presentation and perfectionism cognitions were also linked with aspects of limerence. The results suggest that inter-personal aspects of perfectionism are associated with self-defeating tendencies in dating relationships. This research was supported, in part, by grant #410-93-1256 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada awarded to the authors. The authors wish to thank Lisa Davidson for her assistance with the data analyses in Study 1. Requests for reprints should be addressed to Gordon L. Flett, Department of Psychology, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M3J 1P3.     

Dimensions of perfectionism and irrational thinking

Several authors have suggested that perfectionism is associated with irrational thinking. The purpose of the present research was to test the hypothesis that various dimensions of perfectionism are related significantly to core irrational beliefs. In Study 1, 102 subjects completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and the Irrational Beliefs Test (IBT). The MPS provides assessments of self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Analyses revealed that self-oriented perfectionism was correlated positively with the IBT high self-expectations and perfect solutions subscales. Socially prescribed perfectionism was correlated significantly with a variety of irrational beliefs including high self-expectations, demand for social approval, dependency, blame proneness, and anxious overconcern. Other-oriented perfectionism was correlated with few irrational beliefs. In Study 2, 130 subjects completed the MPS and the Survey of Personal Beliefs, a new measure of core irrational beliefs. Analyses confirmed that all three perfectionism dimensions were associated with core irrational beliefs. It is concluded that the results constitute general support for the hypothesis that cognitive aspects are important in both personal and social components of perfectionism and that perfectionists are characterized by increased levels of irrational beliefs that may contribute to maladjustment. The findings are discussed in terms of the associations among perfectionism, irrational beliefs, and maladjustment.Gordon L. Flett, Ph.D is currently an assistant professor in the Department of Psychology at York University. Paul L. Hewitt, Ph.D is a clinical psychologist at Brockville Psychiatric Hospital. He is also an assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Ottawa. Kirk R. Blankstein, Ph.D, is an associate professor in the Department of Psychology at Erindale College, University of Toronto. Spomenka Koledin is a former student at Erindale College, University of Toronto. Currently, she is a graduate student in the Master of Arts programme at York University.     

Perfectionism,life events,and depressive symptoms: A test of a diathesis-stress model

The present research tested the hypothesis that perfectionists who experience stress are vulnerable to depression, in part because negative life events represent a failure to maintain control over negative outcomes. In Study 1, 215 subjects completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and control measures. The MPS assesses self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism. It was confirmed that self-oriented and other-oriented perfectionism were associated with both higher desire for control and greater perceived personal control. Study 2 examined whether trait levels of perfectionism moderate the link between life stress and symptoms of depression. In addition, prospective analyses investigated whether perfectionism accounts for changes in levels of depressive symptomatology over time. Two samples comprised of 374 students (Sample 1) and 173 students (Sample 2) completed the MPS and measures of major life stress and depression symptoms. Subjects in Sample 2 completed these measures at two timepoints separated by a three-month interval. Regression analyses indicated that self-oriented perfectionism and life stress interact significantly to produce higher levels of depressive symptomatology. Moreover, in Sample 2, self-oriented perfectionism at Time 1 was associated with increases in depression symptoms three months later for those individuals who had experienced a major life event. The results provide support for diathesis-stress models, which maintain that perfectionists exposed to life stress are vulnerable to symptoms of depression. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the study of personality, stress, and vulnerability to symptoms of depression. This research was supported by grants #410-89-0335, #410-91-8056, and #410-93-1256 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada awarded to the authors.     

Perfectionism, life events, and depressive symptoms: A test of a diathesis-stress model

The present research tested the hypothesis that perfectionists who experience stress are vulnerable to depression, in part because negative life events represent a failure to maintain control over negative outcomes. In Study 1, 215 subjects completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and control measures. The MPS assesses self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism. It was confirmed that self-oriented and other-oriented perfectionism were associated with both higher desire for control and greater perceived personal control. Study 2 examined whether trait levels of perfectionism moderate the link between life stress and symptoms of depression. In addition, prospective analyses investigated whether perfectionism accounts for changes in levels of depressive symptomatology over time. Two samples comprised of 374 students (Sample 1) and 173 students (Sample 2) completed the MPS and measures of major life stress and depression symptoms. Subjects in Sample 2 completed these measures at two timepoints separated by a three-month interval. Regression analyses indicated that self-oriented perfectionism and life stress interact significantly to produce higher levels of depressive symptomatology. Moreover, in Sample 2, self-oriented perfectionism at Time 1 was associated with increases in depression symptoms three months later for those individuals who had experienced a major life event. The results provide support for diathesis-stress models, which maintain that perfectionists exposed to life stress are vulnerable to symptoms of depression. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the study of personality, stress, and vulnerability to symptoms of depression. This research was supported by grants #410-89-0335, #410-91-8056, and #410-93-1256 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada awarded to the authors.     

Dimensions of perfectionism and constructive thinking as a coping response

The present study examined perfectionism and general coping ability as assessed by a new measure of constructive thinking. A sample of 77 students completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI). The MPS provides measures of selforiented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism, while the CTI provides various measures, including summary scores of global constructive thinking, emotional coping, behavioral coping, categorical thinking, personal superstitious thinking, naive optimism, and esoteric thinking. Subjects also completed a measure of depressive symptoms so that we could examine perfectionism and coping independent of current levels of adjustment. The main finding was that socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with less constructive thinking and more negative coping across most of the CTI subscales, and these associations remained significant after removing variance due to levels of depression symptoms. Self-oriented perfectionism was adaptive in that it was associated with active forms of behavioral coping, but it was maladaptive in that it was associated with a form of emotional coping involving reduced self-acceptance. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the cognitive treatment of perfectionists. Queen's University This research was supported by grant #410-91-0856 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada awarded to the authors     

Perfectionism,social problem-solving ability,and psychological distress

The present research examined the relation between dimensions of perfectionism and self-appraised problem-solving behaviors and attitudes. Specifically, in two separate studies, we tested the hypothesis that socially prescribed perfectionism (i.e., the perception that others demand perfection from the self) is associated with poorer social problem-solving ability. In addition, measures of psychological adjustment were included in Study 2 so that we could (1) examine whether socially prescribed perfectionism and poorer problem-solving ability were still associated after removing variance associated with psychological distress; and (2) compare depression and anxiety in terms of their respective associations with social problem-solving ability. Correlational analyses of the data from both studies confirmed that socially prescribed perfectionism is associated with more negative self-perceptions of problem-solving orientation, and that the link between socially prescribed perfectionism and negative perceptions of problem-solving orientation remains present after removing variance due to levels of negative affectivity. Both depression and anxiety were associated with a negative problem-solving orientation, but only depression was associated with more negative appraisals of actual problem-solving skills. The results suggest that perceived exposure to imposed standards of perfection undermines the problem-solving process and that individuals with high levels of socially prescribed perfectionism are particularly in need of counseling interventions designed to provide a more positive problem-solving orientation.This research was supported by grants #410-91-0856 and #410-93-1256 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 1994 annual meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association in Providence, Rhode Island. The authors wish to thank Shawn Mosher for his assistance with the data collection.     

The role of perfectionism,agreeableness, and neuroticism in predicting dyadic adjustment

Research has suggested that perfectionism, agreeableness, and neuroticism may influence relationship adjustment; however, these personality variables have not been examined in conjunction when considering relationship adjustment. In a sample of 222 university students (95 male, 126 female), the perfectionism dimensions of concern over mistakes and parental criticism were found to be significantly negatively related to dyadic adjustment. Agreeableness and neuroticism were also significantly negatively related to dyadic adjustment, and accounted for significant variance in explaining dyadic adjustment, while perfectionism dimensions did not. The results suggest that while negative aspects of perfectionism, such as concern over mistakes, have an impact on dyadic adjustment, the personality variables of agreeableness and neuroticism have a more salient impact. The implications of these findings for research in interventions for perfectionism and relationship adjustment are discussed.     

Perfectionism and Sexual Satisfaction in Intimate Relationships

This study sought to provide information on the relations between trait perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation and sexual satisfaction in married couples. A sample of 74 married or cohabiting couples were recruited from the community to participate in the study. They completed measures of perfectionism, perfectionistic self-presentation, sexual satisfaction, dyadic adjustment, and depression. The results showed that the interpersonal dimensions of trait perfectionism were negatively related to general sexual satisfaction and sexual satisfaction with the partner for both husbands and wives. After partialing out marital satisfaction and depression, the husband's sexual satisfaction was significantly negatively correlated with his own socially prescribed perfectionism and with his wife's ratings of other-oriented perfectionism. The wife's satisfaction was significantly negatively correlated both with her husband's socially prescribed perfectionism and with her own socially prescribed perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and perfectionistic self-presentation. Regression analyses suggest that the wife's other-oriented perfectionism is a unique predictor of her general lower sexual satisfaction and her husband's lower satisfaction with her contribution to the sexual relationship. Overall, the findings suggest that perfectionistic expectations have an important role to play in sexual satisfaction in married couples.     

Self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism dimensions and their associations with disordered eating

This study examined the relationship between self-oriented and socially prescribed dimensions of perfectionism (using two measures of perfectionism) and disordered eating assessed across multiple time points in a sample of young women. Study participants (n=406) reported on their levels of perfectionism and on their subsequent patterns of dieting and bulimic symptoms. Self-oriented perfectionism was strongly linked to dietary restraint, whether using the theoretically derived perfectionism dimensions from the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) [Hewitt, P.L., & Flett, G.L. (1991a). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456-470] or the dimensions derived from the Perfectionism subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) [Garner, D. M., Olmsted, M. P., & Polivy, J. (1983). Development and validation of a multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2, 15-34]. A less clear-cut pattern emerged when bulimic symptoms were investigated, with both self-oriented (MPS and EDI) and socially prescribed perfectionism (MPS) being associated with bulimic symptoms. After controlling for negative affect, only a self-oriented dimension of perfectionism predicted unique variance in bulimic symptoms. What constitutes maladaptive perfectionism, concerns about using EDI-Perfectionism dimensions interchangeably with MPS dimensions, and future directions are discussed.     

Perfectionism in relation to attributions for success or failure

The present study examined the association between dimensions of perfectionism and attributions for success and failure. A sample of 124 students (40 males, 84 females) completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and the Multidimensional Multiattributional Causation Scale (MMCS). The MPS consists of three subscales measuring self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially pre-scribed perfectionism. The MMCS measures internal attributions (i.e., ability, effort) and external attributions (i.e., luck, contextual factors) for positive and negative hypo-thetical outcomes in the achievement and affiliation domains. The main finding of this study was that socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with a general ten-dency to attribute outcomes to external causes. This external attribution pattern was obtained for successes and failures in both the achievement and interpersonal spheres. Overall, the main results suggest that socially prescribed perfectionism is associated with perceptions of learned helplessness. The implications of these findings are dis-cussed.     

Perfectionism and Deficits in Cognitive Emotion Regulation

The current study investigated the general hypothesis that perfectionists have deficits in cognitive emotion regulation. A sample of 100 students completed the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory, the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ), and a measure of depression. Correlational analyses revealed that frequent thoughts involving perfectionism were associated with maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation tendencies, including catastrophization, self-blame, rumination, and lack of positive reappraisal. Socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with the maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies of self-blame, catastrophization, and rumination, and it was correlated negatively with the adaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies of putting into perspective and positive reappraisal. Trait self-oriented perfectionism was linked with self-blame. As expected, higher levels of depression were associated with perfectionism cognitions, socially prescribed perfectionism and deficits in cognitive emotion regulation. Our findings suggest the need for interventions designed to bolster the cognitive coping skills of at-risk perfectionists. This research was supported by a major research grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada. Gordon Flett was also supported by a Canada Research Chair in Personality and Health.     

Perfectionism Cognitions, Rumination, and Psychological Distress

The current study examined the extent to which dimensions of perfectionism are associated with a ruminative response orientation and the experience of cognitive intrusions in response to stressful events. Our main goal was to test the hypothesis that individuals characterized by frequent automatic thoughts involving perfectionistic themes would also be characterized by a ruminative response orientation when distressed and they would report intrusive thoughts and images following the experience of a stressful event. A sample of 65 students completed several measures, including the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory, the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Response Styles Questionnaire, the Impact of Events Scale, and indices of depression and anxiety. Correlational analyses confirmed that high scores on the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory were correlated with a ruminative response orientation and the reported experience of intrusive thoughts and images following the experience of a stressful event. High levels of perfectionism cognitions, socially prescribed perfectionism, and rumination were also correlated with measures of depression and anxiety representingthe tripartite model. The results support the view that there is a salient cognitive aspect to perfectionism and the experience of frequent perfectionistic cognitions and related forms of rumination contribute to levels of psychological distress.     

Perfectionism and components of state and trait anxiety

The association between dimensions of perfectionism and state and trait anxiety was examined in three studies. Study 1 and Study 2 were correlational studies that investigated the link between dimensions of perfectionism (i.e., self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism) and the Endler Multidimensional Anxiety Scales (EMAS). Taken together, the results indicated that self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionsim are correlated significantly with both the cognitive-worry and autonomic-arousal components of state anxiety. As for the trait anxiety measures, self-oriented perfectionism was associated with the ambiguous and social evaluation facets in Study 1, and socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with the ambiguous and daily routines facets in Study 2. The purpose of Study 3 was to examine perfectionism and state anxiety under conditions of high versus low ego involvement. It was found that socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with higher state anxiety, but only in the high ego involvement condition. Self-oriented perfectionism was unrelated to state anxiety in either experimental condition. Overall, the findings indicate that socially prescribed perfectionism is the dimension linked most closely with components of state and trait anxiety, especially under conditions of ego threat. The results are discussed in terms of the need for an interactional approach to the study of the social aspects of both perfectionism and anxiety.     

Perfectionism,Distress, and Irrational Beliefs in High School Students: Analyses with an Abbreviated Survey of Personal Beliefs for Adolescents

The current study examined the associations between dimensions of perfectionism and irrational beliefs in an adolescent sample. In addition, we tested the association between psychological distress and irrational beliefs in adolescents and we evaluated the feasibility of creating a modified version of the Survey of Personal Beliefs for use with adolescents. A sample of 250 adolescents (108 males, 142 females) completed the Child-Adolescent Perfectionism Scale, the Survey of Personal Beliefs, and the CES-D Depression Scale. Initial psychometric analyses yielded an abbreviated 30-item Survey of Personal Beliefs with adequate internal consistency for four of the five subscales. Our results showed that self-oriented perfectionism was associated significantly with all five irrational belief subscales, while the associations between socially prescribed perfectionism and irrational belief subscales were much smaller in magnitude. Self-oriented perfectionism, socially prescribed perfectionism, and irrational beliefs were all associated significantly with elevated distress among adolescents, and irrational beliefs predicted unique variance in distress, over and above the variance attributable to the trait perfectionism dimensions. The findings confirmed the association between perfectionism and irrational beliefs and their respective roles in psychological distress among adolescents.     

Dimensions of Perfectionism and Anxiety Sensitivity

The current study investigated the extent to which dimensions of perfectionism are associated with components of the anxiety sensitivity construct. A sample of 177 undergraduate students completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory, the Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale, and the Expanded Anxiety Sensitivity Index developed by Taylor and Cox (1998). The results confirmed that automatic thoughts involving perfectionism and the interpersonal aspects of the perfectionism construct are associated with anxiety sensitivity. Examination of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index factors showed that perfectionism cognitions were associated primarily with anxiety sensitivity involving fears of cognitive dyscontrol, while socially prescribed perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation were associated primarily with fears of publicly observable anxiety reactions in a manner suggesting that the interpersonal perfectionism dimensions are linked closely with an anxious sensitivity to negative social evaluation and subsequent panic attacks. The theoretical and treatment implications of the link between perfectionism and anxiety sensitivity are discussed.     

The effect of exercise absence on affect and body dissatisfaction as moderated by obligatory exercise beliefs and eating disordered beliefs and behaviors

AIM: Research suggests that exercise absence is frequently associated with greater guilt and negative affect, particularly when obligatory exercise beliefs and eating disordered psychopathology are considered. Two separate studies used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to examine differences in mood on exercise and non-exercise days and the moderating impact of obligatory exercise beliefs and eating disordered beliefs and behaviors. METHOD: Both studies recruited female university students who endorsed frequent exercise behavior and study two also recruited based on level of eating disordered psychopathology. Participants completed the Obligatory Exercise Questionnaire at baseline and EMA measures of affect and exercise behavior for approximately one week. Study two participants also completed measures of body dissatisfaction and cognitions. RESULTS: Results of study one suggest that obligation to exercise appears to have a greater impact on general level of affect than does exercise absence or the interaction of these two. In addition, in study two, eating disorder symptomatology was significantly associated with affect and cognition while exercise absence and obligatory exercise beliefs were not. CONCLUSIONS: The present studies suggest that the absence of exercise is not associated with significant changes in affect or cognitions. However, obligation to exercise and eating disorder symptomatology do impact affect and cognitions.     

Perfectionism and multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI) indices of personality disorder

The present research tested the hypothesis that personal and social aspects of the perfectionism construct are related differentially to indices of personality disorders. A sample of 90 psychiatric patients was examined with respect to their scores on the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and the personality disorder subscales (PDS) of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. The MPS provides measures of self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism, whereas the PDS assess levels of various personality disorder symptoms. Zero-order and partial correlations indicated that the perfectionism dimensions of the MPS were related to various subscales of the PDS and, perhaps more importantly, that the findings vary as a function of the perfectionism dimension in question. The results are discussed in terms of the importance of perfectionism in personality disorder symptom patterns.     

A mediated model of perfectionism,affect, and physical health

This study tested a structural model in which positive and negative affect mediate the relationship between perfectionism and physical health. A community sample of young adults completed questionnaires including the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS-H; Hewitt & Flett, 1991b), the Positive and Negative Affect States Survey (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) and items assessing three aspects of physical health. Results supported a structural model in which self-oriented perfectionism was associated with better physical health and this relationship was fully mediated by high positive affect and low negative affect. In contrast, socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with poorer physical health and this relationship was partially mediated by low positive affect and high negative affect. These findings are discussed in terms of the adaptive and maladaptive aspects of perfectionism within a general context of linkages between personality and health.     

The Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory: Psychometric Properties and Associations with Distress and Deficits in Cognitive Self-management

Two studies were conducted to examine the psychometric properties and correlates of the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (PCI) when administered to clinical samples. The PCI is a 25-item measure of automatic thoughts with themes involving perfectionism and beliefs that perfection should be attained. Analyses indicated that the PCI is unidimensional and it has adequate internal consistency. Correlational analyses confirmed that the PCI is associated with psychological distress and deficits in cognitive self-management, including lack of self-reinforcement, lack of a positive self-focus, and perfectionistic inflexibility. Moreover, tests of incremental validity revealed that the PCI accounts for unique variance in levels of anxiety and depression symptoms after removing variance attributable to trait perfectionism dimensions. Overall, the findings suggest that automatic thoughts involving perfectionistic themes can be assessed in a reliable and valid manner in clinical samples. Moreover, it is important to assess perfectionism cognitions as a supplement to trait perfectionism measures when evaluating the role of perfectionism in psychological distress and associated deficits in cognitive self-control. This research was supported by major research grants from Health Canada and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada to the first two authors, and a Canada Research Chair in Personality & Health awarded to the first author. The fourth author, Thomas Martin, is now deceased and this paper is dedicated to his memory.     

Dimensions of Perfectionism and Self-worth Contingencies in Depression

The current study investigated the role of contingent self-worth in perfectionism and depression. It was hypothesized that perfectionism is associated with depression because perfectionists base their self-worth on being successful and on the need to be actively working toward their goals. A sample of 170 female university students completed measures of conditional self-worth, perfectionism traits, perfectionism cognitions, and depressive symptoms. Structural equation modeling revealed that a factor interpreted as Evaluative Concerns Perfectionism was associated strongly with contingent self-worth, which was, in turn, related to depressive symptomatology. In addition, contingent self-worth mediated the association between perfectionism cognitions and depression. Other analyses revealed that measures of self-oriented perfectionism that are often viewed as highly similar actually differed in terms of their associations with contingent self-worth. The theoretical and practical implications of the associations between perfectionism and contingent self-worth are discussed.