交叉分类对刻板印象的影响:穷富与年龄维度交叉为例

以往关于交叉分类对刻板印象的影响主要是集中于自然分类的交叉,比如种族与年龄、种族与性别、年龄与性别的交叉,较少关注社会分类与自然分类的交叉。以穷富与年龄的交叉为例,采用刻板印象解释偏差的方法,在多种情境下比较人们对交叉分类群体与简单分类群体的归因差异作为内隐刻板印象的指标。此外,根据刻板印象内容模型,评价交叉分类群体的热情与能力作为外显刻板印象指标。结果表明交叉分类会影响刻板印象评价。具体来讲,人们对老年富人的低热情行为和高热情行为的归因都要比对富人的更积极,对老年富人的低热情行为和高热情行为的热情评价也要比对富人的更高;人们对年轻穷人失败的归因要比穷人的更加积极。     

基于面孔知觉的刻板印象激活两阶段模型

从个体建构研究视角出发, 考察了基于面孔知觉的刻板印象激活过程。实验一比较了性别分类判断、启动范式以及同时呈现范式下刻板印象匹配性判断三者所用反应时的差异, 结果发现, 后者显著地大于前二者, 且等于前二者之和; 面孔倒置呈现使同时呈现范式下刻板印象匹配判断的反应时和错误率显著增大, 但其对启动范式中刻板印象匹配判断的反应时和错误率没有影响。实验二基于同时呈现范式, 通过不同程度的面孔变形来操纵性别类别提取的难度, 更精确地探讨了基于面孔知觉的社会类别信息提取过程对刻板印象激活的影响, 结果表明, 随着从面孔中提取类别信息难度的增加, 刻板印象激活所用的反应时也逐渐增大。研究结果证实了研究者所提出的刻板印象激活两阶段模型, 即基于面孔知觉的社会类别提取阶段和刻板印象信息激活阶段, 证实社会类别激活和刻板印象信息激活是两个分离的过程, 以社会类别信息提取为目的的面孔知觉对刻板印象的激活有显著影响。     

阶层刻板印象：后效及其理论解释

阶层刻板印象是以阶层为分类依据,形成的关于不同阶层的固定心理图式,其内容具有一定的规律性。阶层刻板印象在阶层互动中具有重要作用,广泛地影响人们的认知、情感和行为。偏差地图理论强调阶层刻板印象对阶层互动的直接影响,同时解释了阶层刻板印象的积极和消极后效。制度正当化理论强调阶层刻板印象作为维持现实合法性的心理工具,对阶层互动的间接影响,主要解释阶层刻板印象的积极后效。未来研究需要进一步明确阶层刻板印象的研究取向与操纵性定义,拓展阶层刻板印象的后效及其干预策略,并整合阶层刻板印象后效的理论解释。     

交叉分类群体的理科性别刻板印象

为探讨以性别与专业构成的交叉分类群体的理科性别刻板印象,研究采用了内隐联想测验和自我报告两种方式,分别从内隐和外显两个加工层面对其予以考察。结果发现,内隐层面上四类交叉分类群体都存在理科性别刻板印象,但外显层面上只有理科男性、文科男性和文科女性存在该刻板印象,而理科女性不存在。该结果表明理科性别刻板印象非常顽固,即使像理科女性和文科男性这样与传统理科性别刻板印象相违背的群体也不能避免。     

社会分类的特性,维度及心理效应

社会分类是个体基于共享相似性将人群分为不同类别的一种主观心理过程, 具有自动化,灵活性和潜在模糊性等特性.社会分类的维度既包括性别,年龄和种族等自然线索, 也包括语言,职业和社会身份等重要社会线索.在社会分类过程中, 不同维度往往具有相对重要性, 表现为优势维度效应; 不同维度相互之间也会发生作用, 产生交叉分类效应, 研究者从不同的视角对这种交叉分类效应进行了解释.未来研究应该采用多样化的方法和技术从分类主体,分类目标,分类情境以及社会文化因素等多角度探讨社会分类的心理加工机制, 构建更具整合性的社会分类理论模型.     

内群体刻板印象内容的维度补偿现象

为验证内群体的刻板印象内容具有补偿性的动态变化,研究采用系列再生法,将428名在校大学生分成3个实验组,每组分别阅读否定大学生群体的能力、社交性和道德的信息后,完成刻板印象内容的测量问卷。结果显示,单一维度的否定性信息改变内群体评价,具体表现为降低该维度评价,或者提升其他维度评价,或者二者同时发生。由此可见,内群体刻板印象内容存在“此高彼低”的补偿现象,并非保持稳定的偏好状态。     

刻板印象威胁效应的消除：干预策略及其展望

刻板印象威胁效应的产生主要受到情境线索、所在刻板印象威胁群体的集体表征及群体认同、信念和动机等个人特质因素的影响。本文以认同威胁模型为基础,针对影响刻板印象威胁效应产生的主要因素,分别从改善情境、改变认知图式和训练积极的内隐态度和动机等多个方面系统地探讨了干预刻板印象威胁可能采用的策略,主要包括提供对困难的外归因、提供角色榜样、启动积极身份特征、提供多重社会身份信息、鼓励自我肯定、强调智力增长观、训练积极内隐态度及重塑任务环境等。在系统梳理各种干预策略的基础上,本文还探讨了当前该领域研究存在的不足和未来的发展方向。     

外显与内隐刻板印象的分布式表征及其激活过程——基于认知神经科学视角的探索

刻板印象是人们有关群体的行为特征与特质属性信念化的认识, 它多以语义图式形式存储于长时记忆中。依据激活过程中意识参与程度的不同, 刻板印象具有内隐和外显两种表现型。不同于双加工理论“自动激活+认知控制”的研究视角, 本项目计划从内隐/外显记忆的多重记忆系统模型出发, 试图检验内隐与外显刻板印象在表征机制和激活过程上的差异。现有的多重记忆系统模型虽能解释内隐和外显刻板印象在记忆存储与提取上的机制差别, 但却无法阐释二者语义表征带有的心理理论特性以及二者的认知控制过程。有鉴于此, 本项目拟吸收“镜像系统−心理化系统”模型和双加工理论各自在特质与信念加工以及刻板印象认知控制上的理论优势, 深入探索内隐和外显刻板印象的分布式表征机制。借助ERP技术的时间过程优势和fMRI技术的脑区动态因果建模优势, 研究结果将最终揭示刻板印象分布式语义表征的动态加工机制。     

刻板印象从内容模型到系统模型的发展与应用

21世纪以来,在刻板印象研究中最受瞩目的当属刻板印象内容模型（Stereotype Content Model, SCM）的提出。它通过热情和能力二个维度区分对不同群体的刻板印象。新近的系统模型则将SCM与群际情绪、行为反应相结合,并凸现了道德维度,开创性地提出了群际情绪-刻板印象-行为趋向系统模型（Behaviors from Intergroup Affect and Stereotypes Map, BIAS Map）。这一系统模型是对刻板印象内容模型的有意义延伸,同时二者的有机结合进一步促进了刻板印象内群体与群体间研究的整合性,较之又增添了认知-情绪-行为与刻板印象预测之间的联结。     

老年刻板印象威胁及其研究操纵

随着人口老龄化的不断加剧, 老年刻板印象威胁受到越来越多的关注。不同于种族或民族、性别等刻板印象威胁, 老年刻板印象威胁表现出累积性、共通性与连续性等特征。目前关于老年刻板印象威胁的研究多集中于认知老化尤其是记忆老化上, 关注老年刻板印象威胁对老年司机和老年员工的消极影响。消除与降低老年刻板印象威胁的消极效应可以从认知改变、群体认同、代际接触、老龄自我实现和个性化以及媒体宣传等五个方面来进行。在实验室研究中, 老年刻板印象威胁有外显与内隐两种不同的操纵形式。未来可以从扩展研究领域、细化“年龄”差异、比较整体效应大小和性别差异、侧重积极效应以及加强本土化检验和跨文化比较研究等方面来深化。     

社会分类的概念、线索及影响机制

作为社会认知的基本过程和重要途径,社会分类对预测刻板印象和群际感知、减少多元文化群体中的关系冲突、促进推理与决策以及指导社会关系推断等都有重要作用。人们进行社会分类的线索可以概括为明显线索和模糊线索、自然线索和社会线索以及静态线索和动态线索。社会分类会受到分类对象、情境和感知者等的作用,同时对人们认知、情绪、情感和行为等产生一系列影响。未来可以基于跨文化和发展视角探讨社会分类的线索偏向、潜在机制及立足本土文化检验社会分类的影响及干预策略。     

Prejudice,categorization and particularization: From a perceptual to a rhetorical approach

This paper seeks to offer an alternative approach to the study of prejudice than that based upon the notion of categorization which is currently influential in cognitive social psychology. It is argued that the categorization approach assumes the inevitability of prejudice and ignores the issue of tolerance. The assumptions of the categorization approach are criticized, and it is suggested that, by focusing on categorization as a cognitive process, it has overlooked an opposing process—that of particularization. The result has been a rather mechanical and bureaucratic model of cognition. A less mechanical view is possible if the relations between the two processes of categorization and particularization are considered from a rhetorical perspective, which examines the argumentative nature of thought. For theoretical and empirical reasons, this perspective does not equate prejudiced thinking with rigid categorization; instead a rhetorical approach permits a distinction between prejudice and tolerance on the basis of content, rather than form, and thereby avoids assuming the inevitability of prejudice.     

A review of multiracial malleability: Identity,categorization, and shifting racial attitudes

The majority of social perception research to date has focused on perceptually obvious and prototypical representations of social categories. However, not all people belong to social categories that are easily discernable. Within the past decade, there has been an upsurge of research demonstrating that multifaceted identities (both one's own and perceptions of others' identities) influence people to think about social categories in a more flexible manner. Here, we specifically review research on multiracial identity and perceptions of multiracial individuals as 2 domains where researchers have documented evidence of the flexible nature of social identities and social categorization. Integrating frameworks that argue race is a dynamic and interactive process, we provide evidence that studying multiracial perceivers and targets helps reveal that race changes across situations, time, and depending on a number of top‐down factors (e.g., expectations, stereotypes, and cultural norms). From the perspective of multiracial individuals as perceivers, we review research showing that flexible identity in multiracial individuals influences the process of social perception driven by a reduced belief in the essential nature of racial categories. From the perspective of multiracial individuals as targets, we review research that top‐down cues influence the racial categorization process. We further discuss emerging work that reveals that exposure to multiracial individuals influences beliefs surrounding the categorical (or noncategorical) nature of race, itself. Needed directions for future work are discussed.     

On the asymmetry in the cognitive construal of ingroup and outgroup: A model of egocentric social categorization

A model of egocentric social categorization (ESC-model) is presented. It predicts an asymmetry in the cognitive construal of ingroups and outgroups which is traced back to an egocentrism in the cognitive differentiation of the social world. The more specific assumptions are: (1) At the most basic level of cognitive differentiation, the perceiver distinguishes between the categories ME and NOT-ME. (2) This basic level categorization predicates an asymmetry in the cognitive construal of ingroup and out-group as social categories: The ingroup is construed as a heterogeneous aggregate of separate entities and the outgroup as a homogeneous social category. (3) Egocentric social categorization thus facilitates self-definition in terms of personal identity relative to self-definition in terms of social identity. The ESC-model is highly relevant to research on perceived ingroup and outgroup homogeneity. Moreover, it alerts researchers to the possibility of ‘quasi-intergroup’ situations in which the outgroup, but not the ingroup, is a salient entity. This article also discusses the relationship between the ESC-model and self-categorization theory and points out some prospects for future research.     

Interpersonal attraction,social identification and psychological group formation

Two perspectives on the nature of the social group and psychological group formation are discussed. The traditional social cohesion approach traces group formation to processes of interpersonal attraction, while the social identity approach defines the group in cognitive terms and considers identification, or self-categorization, to be the mechanism of psychological group formation. On the basis of an experiment by Turner, Sachdev and Hogg (1983) it is hypothesized that interpersonal attraction (positive or negative) is related to group formation only in so far as it enhances intergroup distinctiveness. This hypothesis is experimentally tested in a 2 × 3 (interpersonal liking/disliking per se versus no explicit categorization/random categorization/criterial categorization on the basis of affect) factorial design employing the ‘minimal group’ paradigm. People who like each other and were not explicitly categorized formed a group. This effect was enhanced by criterial categorization but disappeared when categorization was random. Although the results do not support the hypothesis, they are not explicable in social cohesion terms. A social identity explanation is furnished—attraction influences group formation by acting, under certain specifiable conditions, as a cognitive criterion for common category membership. This explanation is located in current theorizing and is proposed as part of a reconceptualization of the relationship between interpersonal attraction and group formation.     

Us and them: Memory advantages in perceptually ambiguous groups

Ingroup advantages and outgroup deficits in perception and memory are well-established in research on race, gender, and other ostensibly identifiable social categories. The present study extended this research to a social category that is not as perceptually apparent: male sexual orientation. Consistent with hypotheses, an interaction of participant sexual orientation and image sexual orientation revealed an ingroup enhancement and outgroup deficit for memory of faces that participants perceived—both accurately and inaccurately—as belonging to either their ingroup or outgroup in a subsequent task. Additionally, parallel effects were found for the accurate identification of sexual orientation—a finding consistent with previous literature. The present data highlight the importance of social categorization for subsequent memory and suggest that the underlying cognitive machinery responsible for the recognition of groups may be co-opted for other relevant social applications.     

Navigating Social Roles in Pursuit of Important Goals: A Communal Goal Congruity Account of STEM Pursuits

Our exploration of communal goal processes in decisions about science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) careers integrates research on goal pursuit processes with research on stereotyping and on social role occupancy. Social roles encompass expectations and resources that can originate from group membership in broad social categories, such as gender, ethnicity, or nationality, or from more narrowly focused occupational and family roles. Our review elaborates on three ways in which social roles intersect with goal pursuit processes, with particular attention to how communal goals influence STEM pursuits. First, social roles influence goal selection or what goals are prioritized generally and at a particular time. Second, beliefs about social roles can influence the kinds of roles that people shy away from or seek out. Third, occupying a particular social role can actually facilitate or impede goal progress. With regard to STEM pursuits, we demonstrate that communal goals are valued both generally by people and especially by women, and that consensual stereotypes describe STEM fields as less likely to afford communal goals than other occupational roles. However, emphasizing the communal aspects of STEM fields elicits greater positivity toward these roles. Finally, we explore the ways in which STEM occupational roles are or might be enacted in communally‐oriented ways. The goal congruity perspective thus can offer a unifying framework to integrate an understanding of the social structure – that is, roles and contexts – with the social cognition of the individual – that is, critical motivational and cognitive processes.     

Visual categorization of social interactions

Prominent theories of action recognition suggest that during the recognition of actions the physical patterns of the action is associated with only one action interpretation (e.g., a person waving his arm is recognized as waving). In contrast to this view, studies examining the visual categorization of objects show that objects are recognized in multiple ways (e.g., a VW Beetle can be recognized as a car or a beetle) and that categorization performance is based on the visual and motor movement similarity between objects. Here, we studied whether we find evidence for multiple levels of categorization for social interactions (physical interactions with another person, e.g., handshakes). To do so, we compared visual categorization of objects and social interactions (Experiments 1 and 2) in a grouping task and assessed the usefulness of motor and visual cues (Experiments 3, 4, and 5) for object and social interaction categorization. Additionally, we measured recognition performance associated with recognizing objects and social interactions at different categorization levels (Experiment 6). We found that basic level object categories were associated with a clear recognition advantage compared to subordinate recognition but basic level social interaction categories provided only a little recognition advantage. Moreover, basic level object categories were more strongly associated with similar visual and motor cues than basic level social interaction categories. The results suggest that cognitive categories underlying the recognition of objects and social interactions are associated with different performances. These results are in line with the idea that the same action can be associated with several action interpretations (e.g., a person waving his arm can be recognized as waving or greeting).