谬误研究总论(上)

古希腊伟大学者亚里士多德开创了谬误研究领域。两千多年来,众多的逻辑学家、哲学家、语言学家、心理学家以及科学家甚至政治学家都为谬误研究奉献了自己的才智和精力。纵观谬误研究的历史发展,迄今已形成谬误研究的几个富有成果的方向。     

约翰·伍兹谬误思想研究:1972—2014

首先,本文将伍兹的谬误思想划分为前、近两个时期:前期谬误研究的基本原则诉诸于形式的方法,具有多元主义特征;近期思想则转向了基于实践推理与认知经济的谬误观,并在此基础上形成了自然化的逻辑理论,带有心理和认知色彩。其次,本文搜集、整理学界近年来对伍兹不同时期谬误思想的研究情况,对它们给予批判性地比较和评价。最后,本文对伍兹谬误思想的历史意义、最新发展以及未来走向做一般性总结,着重指出显现于伍兹新近理论中的逻辑"自然转向"思想。     

当代谬误研究评论

谬误(Fallacy)是不正确的论证模式。西方谬误研究自亚里士多德始至今经久不衰。如果说,以往在逻辑中讨论谬误完全是因袭亚里士多德开创的逻辑传统,那么,在符号逻辑占主导地位的当代,讨论谬误多少有点“对抗”符号逻辑的意味。本世纪50年代以来,新修辞学的兴起,日常语言学派的主张以及从逻辑应用出发对符号逻辑的反思,为研究符号逻辑视野之外的论证(Argt nent)开辟了道路。而谬误正是论证研究的重要内容。近十年,这     

亚里士多德关于谬误的理论

《辨谬篇》是西方历史上第一部系统地研究谬误的逻辑著作。在这部著作中,亚里士多德对谬误进行了初步的分类,对十三种谬误进行了分析,并指出解决这些谬误的方法。此外,他在《前分析篇》和《修辞学》中,对谬误也有一些论述。这些研究和论述体现了亚里士多德关于谬误的全部理论。正如罗斯(W.D.Ross)所说:“亚里士多德的研究考虑了推理所面临的许多最难以捉摸的危险。     

虚概念指称问题研究

传统逻辑里并没有虚概念一说,虚概念的提出,是伴随现代逻辑的兴起,及其对空类、自然数0的定义和空集的界定而产生的。在以亚里士多德为代表的传统逻辑里,概念一词很少出现,逻辑学家往往用词项的说法来表达概念。亚氏本人,更没有提到过虚概念这一说法。值得关注的是,传统逻辑     

评王路著《亚里士多德的逻辑学说》

王路著《亚里士多德的逻辑学说》一书于1991年3月由中国社会科学出版社出版.本书从亚里士多德的原著出发,回答什么是亚里士多德逻辑的问题.作者认为,亚里士多德对证明的推理的论述形成了三段论学说,对辩论的推理的论述形成了四谓词理论,对强辩的推理的论述形成了关于谬误的理论.这些不同的学说形成于不同的时期,基本上     

现代知名逻辑学家——汪奠基

汪奠基先生(1900～1979)原名三辅,号芟芜、山父等。湖北鄂城人。他是我国现代知名的逻辑学家。汪奠基先生是最早著书向国内传播现代逻辑的中国学者之一早在1927年,年轻的教授汪奠基先生就出版了《逻辑与数学逻辑论》一书,该书用极为简明的历史叙述方法闸明了形式逻辑的历史发展,第一部分介绍了亚里士多德逻辑的基本内容,叙说传统逻辑的发展历史;第二部分则着重介绍近代数理逻辑的基本原理,闸述数理逻辑产生的历史必然性。     

麦加拉—斯多葛逻辑

麦加拉学派和斯多葛学派是古希腊时期两个热衷于逻辑学研究的哲学学派的名称。他们在西方逻辑史上开创并完成了继亚里士多德逻辑之后的第二个伟大创造——古典命题逻辑。说来也巧,这两个学派的主要逻辑学家之间几乎都具有师生关系。例如,麦加拉学派的奠基人欧几里德就是“说谎人”悖论的创始者欧布里德的老师;欧布里德的学生是绰号为“克朗纳斯”(老蠢汉)的第奥多鲁。其实他一点     

试论单称命题之间的对当关系

古希腊伟大的哲学家和逻辑学家亚里士多德救尊称为“逻辑之父”,因为他创立了以三段论为中心内容的传统逻辑,他的三段论是一个系统,“其严格性甚至超过了一门数学理论的严格性,而这就是它的不朽的价值。”[1]亚里士多德逻辑当然存在着这样或那样的缺点和错误,其最大缺点之一就是“对单称命题的忽视”,[2]“单一词项和单称命题在其中没有地位”[3]亚里士多德虽然在《解释篇》中论述了单你肯定命题“苏格拉底是白的”与单称否定命题“苏格拉底不是白的”是一对矛盾命题,“必然一个是真实的,一个是虚假的。”[4]但他没有进一步全面系统…     

吴卡西维茨的三值逻辑

现代杰出的逻辑学家吴卡西维茨(Jan·tukasiewicz 1878—1956),是位向古典逻辑挑战的非亚里士多德主义者。早在1910年,他就想证明亚里士多德的矛盾律并非象人们所坚信的那样不证自明,但是没有成功。不过他终于在亚里士多德的思想中找到了一个突破口,在古典的二值逻辑之外,开辟了三值逻辑、多值逻辑以及模态逻辑的新领域。     

记忆中的错误联接:影响因素和理论建构

记忆中的错误联接是指被试在测验中,对先前学过的刺激的某部分重新组合成的新刺激产生错误再认,包括特征错误和联合错误.近年来,出现了众多的有关记忆中的错误联接的理论模型,对影响错误联接的因素,人们也进行了深入探讨.     

Semantic Factors in the Production of Number Agreement

This paper examines the role of semantic factors in the production of subject–verb number agreement. As an ostensibly grammatical process, number agreement provides an interesting case for examining the flow and interaction of semantic and syntactic information through the language-production system. Using a sentence-completion task, agreement errors can be elicited from subjects by presenting them with sentence fragments containing a complex noun-phrase, in which the nonhead noun is plural (e.g., The key to the cabinets...WERE missing.). Previous research has demonstrated that the probability of making an error can be affected by varying the properties of the nouns in the complex noun phrase. By investigating which variables do and do not affect error rates, constraints on the flow of information through the production system can be inferred. In three experiments, we investigated the possible effects of three different semantic manipulations of the nouns in the complex NP: animacy, semantic overlap, and plausibility of modification by the sentence predicate. We found that both animacy and semantic relatedness had reliable effects on error rates, indicating that the mechanism involved in implementing agreement cannot be blind to semantic information. However, the plausibility with which each noun could serve as the subject of the sentence predicate had no effect on error rates. Taken together, these results suggest that while semantic information is visible to the agreement mechanism, there are still constraints on when this information can affect the process. Specifically, it may be the case that only information contained within the complex NP is considered for the purposes of implementing agreement.     

Errors on a computer task and subclinical symptoms of attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Previous reports have found increased error rate for children with attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD ) on response time (RT ) computer tasks. Here we attempt the conceptual replication and extension of two studies that examined error rate in a general population of children (N = 203). Study 1 followed Johnstone and Galletta but considered associations between scores on a dimensional measure of ADHD symptoms (rather than comparing those with or without an ADHD diagnosis) and the frequency of commission and omission errors. Study 2 followed Shiels, Tamm & Epstein and examined post‐error adjustment in the same group of children as for Study 1. Study 1 did not replicate previous findings of no increase in errors of commission in those with higher ADHD symptoms (Johnstone & Galletta). Instead, we found that younger children with lower ADHD symptoms were more likely to make commission errors, while omission errors did not vary with age. Study 2 replicated the previous finding of less RT slowing in children with more ADHD symptoms, extending this finding to a general population of children. Namely, as ADHD symptoms increase, RT slowing is less likely, putting children with higher ADHD symptoms at risk of additional errors. Overall, we extend previous ADHD research to typically developing children with ADHD symptoms.     

Standard errors for the class of orthomax-rotated factor loadings: Some matrix results

The partial derivative matrices of the class of orthomax-rotated factor loadings with respect to the unrotated maximum likelihood factor loadings are derived. The reported results are useful for obtaining standard errors of the orthomax-rotated factor loadings, with or without row normalization (standardization) of the initial factor loading matrix for rotation. Using a numerical example, we verify our analytic formulas by comparing the obtained standard error estimates with that from some existing methods. Some advantages of the current approach are discussed.Authorship is determined by alphabetical order. The authors contributed equally to the research. Kentaro Hayashi is now at the Department of Mathematics, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA 17837 (email: khayashi@Bucknell.edu). Yiu-Fai Yung is now at the SAS Institute, Inc., SAS Campus Drive, Cary, NC 27513 (email: yiyung@wnt.sas.com).Part of the research was completed while Yiu-Fai Yung was a visiting scholar at the Department of Psychology, the Ohio State University. The visit was supported in part by grant N4856118101 from the NIMH and the Mason and Linda Stephenson Travel Award from the Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. The authors are grateful to Michael Browne who suggested some relevant references and provided valuable comments on the research, and to Robert Cudeck who provided the FAS program for the numerical comparison. The expert comments by the reviewers are deeply appreciated.     

Effects of syllable structure in aphasic errors: implications for a new model of speech production

Current models of word production assume that words are stored as linear sequences of phonemes which are structured into syllables only at the moment of production. This is because syllable structure is always recoverable from the sequence of phonemes. In contrast, we present theoretical and empirical evidence that syllable structure is lexically represented. Storing syllable structure would have the advantage of making representations more stable and resistant to damage. On the other hand, re-syllabifications affect only a minimal part of phonological representations and occur only in some languages and depending on speech register. Evidence for these claims comes from analyses of aphasic errors which not only respect phonotactic constraints, but also avoid transformations which move the syllabic structure of the word further away from the original structure, even when equating for segmental complexity. This is true across tasks, types of errors, and, crucially, types of patients. The same syllabic effects are shown by apraxic patients and by phonological patients who have more central difficulties in retrieving phonological representations. If syllable structure was only computed after phoneme retrieval, it would have no way to influence the errors of phonological patients. Our results have implications for psycholinguistic and computational models of language as well as for clinical and educational practices.     

A method for eliciting scale errors in preschool classrooms

Six preschool classrooms, containing children between the ages of 4.0 and 40.0 months, were seeded with miniature items to examine how easily scale errors could be elicited. Observations occurred over a period of 3 months, with a total of 280 min of observations per classroom. A concealed observer documented all interactions with the miniature items. A total of 93 scale errors occurred, with a higher frequency committed by the younger children. These results confirm findings from previous research and suggest that scale errors can be effectively elicited in a preschool classroom. Our approach may provide a useful method for systematically studying the factors that influence scale errors.     

The effectiveness of the erratum in avoiding error propagation in physics

The propagation of errors in physics research is studied, with particular attention being paid to the effectiveness of the erratum in avoiding error propagation. We study the citation history of 17 physics papers which have significant errata associated with them. It would appear that the existence of an erratum does not significantly decrease the frequency with which a paper is cited and in most cases the erratum isnot cited along with the original paper. The authors comment on implications for the responsibilities of authors.     

A look,by simulation,at the validity of some asymptotic distribution results for rotated loadings

In the last few years, a number of asymptotic results for the distribution of unrotated and rotated factor loadings have been given. This paper investigates the validity of some of these results based on simulation techniques. In particular, it looks at principal component extraction and quartimax rotation on a problem with 13 variables. The indication is that the asymptotic results are quite good.     

Development and initial validity of the Exercise-Related Cognitive Errors Questionnaire

ObjectiveCognitive errors (CEs) reflect individuals' biased evaluations of context-relevant information. In the exercise domain, a valid form of exercise CE assessment is needed. The Exercise-related Cognitive Errors Questionnaire (E-CEQ) was developed to determine to what extent adults make cognitive errors regarding exercise decisions. The purpose of this study was to develop and provide initial validity evidence for the E-CEQ.DesignThe current study used an online self-report survey.MethodFirst, 24 initial vignettes representing 6 CEs were created and content validated. Second, data from 364 adults (M_age = 29.1, SD_age = 11.6; 81.3% female) was gathered to examine the E-CEQ's factor structure. Finally, data from the 364 participants was used to examine aspects of criterion-related validity.ResultsA 16-item, three-factor model was retained as the final E-CEQ factor structure and had good psychometric properties (χ² = 164.35, df = 75, p < .001; RMSEA = .057; CFI = .947; TLI = .915). Evidence of the questionnaire's predictive utility is provided. For example, exercise CEs were negatively related to exercise and accounted for 4.9% of additional variance beyond the contribution of past exercise in predicting exercise intention.ConclusionsThe steps taken to examine different forms of validity helped provide a platform from which to continue (a) to study biases linked to cognitive errors and (b) the E-CEQ validation process through ongoing investigation.     

Caffeine reduces the impact of drowsiness on driving errors

AimThe study examined the moderating effect of repeat-dose, chewing gum-administered caffeine on the well-established relationship between drowsiness and driving performance, under the conditions of accumulating sleep loss.Method50-h sleep deprivation protocol with a double-blind, placebo-controlled design. Eleven volunteers (6 male), aged 18–28 years were screened for pre-existing medical conditions (including sleep disturbances), tobacco and recreational drug use, recent time-zone travel and shift-work. They were randomly allocated to placebo or caffeine group and administered 4 oral doses of either caffeinated gum pellets (200 mg/dose) or non-caffeinated placebo gum every two hours (01:00, 03:00, 05:00, 07:00) on the first and second nights of the protocol. Participants were constantly monitored and remained awake for 50 h, while performing 15 identical, evenly-spaced 40-min monotonous driving tasks in a medium-fidelity moving-base driving simulator. Their drowsiness was monitored with a spectacle frame-mounted infra-red sensor registering ocular parameters and converting them into a Johns Drowsiness Scale (JDS) score every 60 s. Lane keeping and speed variability measures were used to assess driving performance.ResultsDriving performance declined and drowsiness increased from the first simulated drive to the last. When driving performance was examined in one-minute epochs synchronised with JDS scores, both lateral lane positioning and speed variability were found to be associated with drowsiness. The strength of this association was significantly weaker in the caffeine group, compared to placebo. Placebo group replicated the linear relationship between drowsiness and driving errors across the full range of JDS scores. This pattern was significantly weaker under the caffeine condition, and was even reversed at the upper range of JDS, with higher JDS scores not resulting in further degradation of driving performance. This dissociation between drowsiness and driving errors persisted across the 24-h cycle under the caffeine condition, despite caffeine being administered only during early morning hours.ConclusionStrategically timed, repeat 200 mg doses of caffeine administered via chewing gum can mitigate fatigue-induced impairments in driving performance by not only reducing drowsiness but also by significantly weakening its impact on driving errors. This dual effect of sustained drowsiness reduction and the dissociation between drowsiness levels and driving errors seems worth further investigation as it might offer an effective emergency countermeasure against driver drowsiness and its subsequent conversion into potentially fatal driving errors.