再论道德理论的层次结构：以义促利 ——与陈晓平教授、罗伟玲博士商榷

陈晓平教授、罗伟玲博士在《试论道德理论的层次结构——兼论儒家伦理与西方伦理之比较》一文中关于儒家伦理的表述前后有矛盾,以情感主义道义论概括儒家伦理和以情感主义功利论概括休谟、斯密也有失偏颇,因此,该文通过"四大道德学派"之间的相互比较说明的道德理论的层次结构以及通过"中西伦理再比较"(以儒家伦理代表中国伦理)得出的中西方伦理之间呈现"互补格局"的结论,也有失误。事实上,道德理论的总原则是以义致利或以义促利,道德理论层次结构应为情感主义以义致利论→理性主义道义论→功利论。该文概括的"道德哲学的四大分野即理性主义、情感主义、功利论、道义论",应该被浓缩为儒家、休谟、斯密代表的情感主义以义致利论,康德代表的理性主义道义论和边沁、密尔代表的最大幸福派功利论。     

论欺诈性侦查的双层伦理评价

欺诈性侦查与刑讯逼供不同,在进行伦理评价时会遇到"善恶难辨"的灰色区域。对欺诈性侦查进行伦理评价,应当避免持机械道义论或庸俗功利论为理论工具,而是应结合道义论与功利论的各自优点走一条中庸之路,采用双层伦理评价的方法。对欺诈性侦查进行双层伦理分析,可以简化分析逻辑,避免伦理评价的绝对化与庸俗化;也可以更好地认清其"必要之恶"的本质,为适用"非法推定"框架分析法律问题奠定基础。     

董仲舒经权观对道义论立场的回归

《春秋公羊传》中提出的“权者反于经,然后有善”的观点表现出明显的重后果的倾向。董仲舒通过将“义”与“道”引入到经权理论之中,为“经”“权”相反相成的经权观的道义论立场找到了一个相对坚实的理论基础,并弥补了《公羊传》中的经权观只能通过在经权关系之外设置实践限制的方式来避免行权违背道义原则的不足。在坚持重道义的基础上,把道义与结果有机地结合起来是儒家伦理思想的一贯立场。董仲舒经权观中道义论立场的明确和回归,反映了经权关系理论提出初期儒家学者对道义和结果之间的关系在理论上的调适与平衡。     

道义政治的公利重塑 ——陈亮功利主义政治哲学新论

陈亮的政治思想并不是对儒家传统道德哲学的背叛,而是通过思维起点反思和思维方式跃迁,使天理的必然性在思维的逻辑中得以继续,让政治生活的道德法则在功利的追求中得以保留。陈亮批判朱熹理学"不免于二"的命定分裂,揭露出"理一"和"气异"的逻辑矛盾,展示出形上天理作为至善尺度的消极边界;用"体一"代替"理一",使有限绝对的天理获得了整体性超越,实现了道学逻辑起点的更替;以"定"为中介将分殊组织为"体一",达成了思维方式从两极向中介的转变。陈亮重新发现人在公共生活中的自我规定,使道德和功利在政治生活中得到和解,在公利中使道义政治得以重塑。     

论生命伦理学的自主性原则

自主性原则是生命伦理学的首要原则,其本质在于个人自主地选择自己的思想和行为.自主分为思想自主、意愿自主和行动自主.自主性原则的思想前提是道义论与后果论.在生命伦理学中,尊重、知情同意、保密和隐私权是自主性原则的具体表现形式.在医疗实践中,自主权的行使必须与具体的情境相结合,其价值才能充分实现.     

论佛教道德的层次性特征

佛教道德是近年来颇受佛教学界和伦理学界关注的一个研究方向。佛教道德具有广泛适应性的重要原因是它的层次性。佛教道德涵盖了功利论、义务论和德性论等多个层面 ,能够适应不同层次、不同境遇下人们的需求。第一 ,佛教道德的功利论建立在善恶报应论基础上 ,为民间大众所乐意遵循。第二 ,佛教道德的义务论以佛教道德规范和戒律为核心 ,分为肯定性规则与否定性规则两种。第三 ,佛教道德的德性论建立在心性论基础上 ,以改善人的道德本性、提高人生境界为目的 ,是解脱成佛的根本出路。科学把握佛教道德的层次性特征 ,不仅有助于全面理解佛教道德的独特品格 ,而且对当代的道德建设亦有启发。     

论儒家的王道精神 —— —以孔孟为中心

儒家的王道论,体现了一种“道义至上”的精神.孔孟区分“王”、“霸”,既强调二者在内在价值原则层面上的根本区别,亦特别注重二者在惠及社会及其功业成就层面所存在的意义相关性和重叠性.儒家强调,作为伦理共同体的最高原则,必须是“仁义”或道义,而绝不能是“利”.唯以道义为终极目的和最高原则,功利事功乃能被点化、升华而使真正作为“人”的价值得以实现,从而构成为“王道”的本真内涵和内在要素.儒家的王道论可以概括为一种在道义原则基础上的道义-功利一体论.在国际关系原则方面,儒家的王道论特别强调天道、天意、仁心、民心、民意、民情之内在一致性,突出了道义至上原则的超越性意义.这种王道精神,在今天仍具有重要的理论和现实意义.     

论康德政治学说的道义论特征

道义论不仅可以用来说明康德的伦理学,还可以用来说明康德的政治学说。康德站在权利原则立场上批判政治的幸福原则,主张政治必须符合权利正当性原则,主张政治行为要以人为目的并实现人的尊严,这些观点都具有典型的道义论特征。康德的政治道义论作为实践理性的绝对命令的演绎,在理论上具有合法地位,在实践中具有重要意义。康德的政治道义论既站在权利立场批判了发展的限度,又赋予权利以道德特征,更提出了政治的道德目标,这使得他的政治学说既具有重要现实针对性,也成了当代政治哲学的价值标杆。     

论优先问题——对罗尔斯《正义论》的一种分析

<正义论>的理论骨干是一系列的优先性命题,其基本形式为A优先于B.通过道德风俗考古学式的痕迹分析考察,可以离析出理论家们关注的基本价值.优先性命题中的关系词"优先于"的含义是变化的,优先性命题的成立隐含着各种条件,条件的变化与"优先于"的含义变化之间有一种本质的联系.罗尔斯关于基本善的不可比较的思想和优先性命题的论证之间存在着矛盾,需要寻找新的理论出路来解决这些矛盾.通过对优先问题的分析,折射出<正义论>可以被看作是传统伦理学走向价值伦理学的一种过渡形态的理论.     

经济伦理的价值蕴含

本文试图从伦理意义揭示经济伦理的价值 ,认为经济伦理的价值应该是功利价值、道义价值与文化价值三个方面的统一。功利价值体现着经济伦理的经济本性 ,在于促成经济利益最大化 ;道义价值体现着经济伦理的伦理本性 ,旨在促成自利行为公益化 ;文化价值体现着经济伦理的文化本性 ,致力于促成物性文化人性化。     

Competition and cooperation between groups and between individuals

Groups and individuals were compared in two experiments. In the first, two same-sex individuals or two same-sex dyads played 10 trials of a Prisoner's Dilemma matrix game (PDG) for money. Play between individuals was more cooperative and less competitive than play between groups. In the second experiment subjects played 10 trials of either PDG or mutual-fate-control (MFC) matrices. For the MFC matrix the competitive choice, which reduces the opponent's outcomes, but has no effect on own outcomes, reflects a desire to increase one's relative advantage over the opponent. Although cooperation was greater for MFC, for both PDG and MFC matrices groups were more competitive and less cooperative than individuals. A large component of the groups-individuals effect is attributed to the greater desire of groups to “win” or avoid “losing” to the opponent, regardless of their absolute outcomes.     

Competition between antecedent and between subsequent stimuli in causal judgments

In the analysis of stimulus competition in causal judgment, 4 variables have been frequently confounded with respect to the conditions necessary for stimuli to compete: causal status of the competing stimuli (causes vs. effects), temporal order of the competing stimuli (antecedent vs. subsequent) relative to the noncompeting stimulus, directionality of training (predictive vs. diagnostic), and directionality of testing (predictive vs. diagnostic). In a factorial study using an overshadowing preparation, the authors isolated the role of each of these variables and their interactions. The results indicate that competition may be obtained in all conditions. Although some of the results are compatible with various theories of learning, the observation of stimulus competition in all conditions calls for a less restrictive reformulation of current learning theories that allows similar processing of antecedent and subsequent events, as well as of causes and effects.     

Dissociating between cardinal and ordinal and between the value and size magnitudes of coins

In mathematics, the ordinal (relative) magnitude of a numerical object conveys a separate meaning from its cardinal (absolute) magnitude, whereas its physical size bears no inherent relationship to its magnitude. In numerical cognition, the ordinal-cardinal distinction has been scarcely addressed, whereas the size-magnitude distinction has been studied extensively, with the surprising demonstration of an interaction between semantic magnitude and physical size (Besner & Coltheart, 1979). The present work used coins to study the intricate relations between these meanings. In two experiments, Israeli observers (Experiment 1) and American observers (Experiment 2) performed numerical and physical comparative judgments of coins. Consensual markers of magnitude activation (e.g., the size congruity effect and the distance effect) were obtained. The results of the two experiments converged on the same conclusions. Comparisons of value were governed by ordinal magnitude. Magnitude interfered with comparisons of size, but size did not affect value. The results provided a set of clear dissociations between cardinal and ordinal magnitude and between value and size of coins. They highlight the important role played by ordinal information in magnitude processing.     

Choice between Delayed Reinforcers: Interaction between Delay and Deprivation Level

Choice between two reinforcers differing in magnitude and delay was investigated in rats maintained at 80% ( n = 10) or 90% ( n = 10) of their free-feeding body weights using discrete-trials adjusting-delay schedules in which the two reinforcers (S\[mall] and L\[arge]) were associated with different levers. In each phase of the experiment the delay to the smaller reinforcer ( dS ) was held constant, and the delay to the larger reinforcer ( dL ) was varied in accordance with the distribution of choices in successive blocks of trials. The value of dS was varied across the four phases of the experiment (2, 4, 8, and 2 sec). When dS was 2 sec, the mean value of dL was higher in the rats maintained at 80% than in those maintained at 90% of their free-feeding body weights. When dS was increased, the value of dL increased in both groups; however the effect of deprivation level was abolished. The results are consistent with a model of choice that posits hyperbolic relations between reinforcer value and reinforcer magnitude, and between reinforcer value and delay of reinforcement.     

Relationship between intelligence and vocabulary

This study explored the correlations of scores on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-III in screening language problems and scores on the three Comprehensive Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary Test subscales. Participants were 243 students ages 6 to 17 years in Grades K-11 who were identified as learning disabled, learning disabled with speech impairment, mentally retarded, and speech impaired. Analysis indicated strong correlations between the two measures, particularly between the CREVT General Vocabulary and WISC-III Verbal IQ (r = .80), WISC-III Verbal Comprehension Index (r =.83), and the Vocabulary subtest (r =.76). These results held across the grades. Supporting earlier studies of relationships of Verbal IQ and Receptive Vocabulary, correlations were lower between participants in Grades K through 2 than those in higher grades on the WISC-III Verbal IQ and the Receptive Vocabulary subtest. An analysis of the accuracy of the WISC-III for classifying students with language problems indicated improvement in classification over chance. These findings suggest that the WISC-III may be an effective screen for language problems.     

Relationships between self-concept and achievement

This study is based on a multifaceted and hierarchical model of self-concept and explores the relationships between the various facets of self-concept and academic achievement. The model of self-concept has general self-concept at the apex, then academic self-concept, presentation of self, and social self-concept. There are 7 third-order factors: achievement, ability, and classroom self-concepts (academic), physical self-concepts (social). Further, there are four specific-subject and peer and family self-concepts (social). Further, there are four specific-subject self-concepts. The argument proposed in this study is that the relations between achievement and the facets of academic self-concept are greater than the relations between achievement and presentation of self and social self-concept. This argument is not rejected. Adolescents consistently evaluate themselves across various academic subjects, but there are no relationships between achievement and other aspects of the self.     

Cooperation between clergy and psychiatrists

Pastoral Psychology -