7～11岁儿童的同伴接纳与心理理论发展的研究

本研究采用情境故事研究7～11岁儿童二级错误信念理解和特质理解能力的发展,并探讨该年龄段儿童同伴接纳与心理理论发展的相互影响机制。结果表明,7～11岁儿童的二级错误信念理解能力随年龄增长显著提高;7岁儿童关于特质因果性的理解有比较高的起点,7～9岁加速发展,之后趋缓;7～9岁儿童的同伴接纳与其二级误信念理解能力没有显著的相关;总体上看,受欢迎学生的特质理解能力显著优于被拒斥学生。     

6～9岁儿童特质观与其人格特质的关系

为考察特质观与稳定的行为方式之间的关系,采用情境故事法和问卷法分别对180名6～9岁儿童进行了特质稳定性理解的个别测查和人格特质的教师评定。结果发现,持三种不同特质观（实体论、中间论、渐变论）的6～9岁儿童开始在认真有恒、自制稳重、聪慧性、开朗活泼和同情利他五种人格特质行为上表现出显著差异;6～9岁儿童的特质观能够预测以上五种人格特质,丽儿童“开朗插泼”和“聪慧性”特质行为的线性组合是预测儿童特质观的最佳指标。这些研究结论有助于说明关于特质的认知在调解和制约个体稳定的行为理解和反应中的重要作用,验证了人格认知流派的观点;支持了认知与人格之间交互作用的理论假设;对于解释年幼儿童发展中的不适应问题具有一定的意义。     

对特质起源信念的研究

特质起源信念研究是近年来内隐特质信念研究的新热点。本研究选取216名被试(5岁、7岁、9岁、13岁、19岁、65岁组各36名)为样本．采用“出生时意外互换”故事法探查其特质起源信念(天性信念或教养信念)发展。结果表明：(1)特质类型方面,心理特质被认为比混合特质和生理特质更多受教养影响。(2)特质性质方面,消极特质被认为比积极特质更多受教养影响。(3)特质起源信念年龄差异显著,7—8岁是重要过渡期。     

4-12岁儿童特质识别的发展研究

研究以4岁、5岁、7岁、10岁和12岁组共160名儿童为被试,考察了儿童特质识别的发展情况.结果发现:(1)各年龄组儿童对积极和消极特质、对能力、社会道德和内部状态领域特质的识别成绩,均显著高于概率成绩,表明儿童从4岁起就已经能够从行为描述中识别出相应的特质.(2)儿童的特质识别成绩随年龄增长呈规律性变化,4～7岁期间儿童特质识别成绩快速提高,7岁后则相对平稳.(3)儿童对积极和消极特质的识别成绩之间无显著差异,但对社会道德特质的识别成绩显著高于能力特质和内部状态特质.(4)从整体上看,儿童识别积极特质的确定程度显著高于消极特质,识别社会道德特质和内部状态特质的确定程度均显著高于能力特质.     

儿童掌握能力概念的特

选取4岁组、5岁组、7岁组、10岁组和12岁组儿童共160名（各年龄组32名,男女各半）为被试,采用个别测验法,从能力的跨情境稳定性、能力的效力和能力的不可控性3个维度探讨学前和小学儿童的能力概念的发展。结果表明,（1）儿童对能力的跨情境稳定性、对能力的效力和对能力的不可控性的认识代表着儿童不同的能力概念。（2）儿童对能力的跨情境稳定性的认识和对能力的效力的认识均存在显著的年龄差异,它们都反映了儿童能力概念的发展性差异,两者在4~12岁期间都随年龄而不断发展,但发展的时间与速度不同,前者的发展早且快。（3）儿童对能力不可控性的认识不存在显著的年龄差异,它反映了儿童能力概念的个体差异     

3～4岁儿童基于可信度特质的信任判断:特质间差异和年龄特点

研究采用对偶选择的范式,通过两个实验考察了96名3～4岁儿童基于可信度特质的信任判断。研究同时测量儿童基于可信度特质(能干、友好和诚实)的信任判断能力和针对这些特质的好坏评价能力。结果发现:(1)信任判断的正确率在3种可信度特质间不存在差异。(2)在信任判断之后再进行好坏评价的情况下(实验一),4岁儿童信任判断的正确率高于3岁,在控制好坏评价能力之后,年龄差异依然存在。(3)在信任判断之前先进行好坏评价的情况下(实验二),则信任判断的正确率不存在年龄差异。这些结果表明不是因为好坏评价能力的缺陷,而可能是任务本身较重的认知负荷使得3岁儿童不能像4岁儿童那样自发地依据特质的效价信息进行信任判断。     

儿童特质推理与情绪和效价线索理解的关系

本研究从情绪、效价两个角度探讨儿童特质理解与线索理解的关系。372名4、5、7岁儿童完成了贴标签和行为预测两类特质推理任务。实验一显示,所有年龄段儿童都能完成对情绪性特质害羞和胆小的推理,且特质和行为评定与情绪评定呈显著正相关;实验二显示,所有年龄段均能完成双重性质特质助人为乐和自私的推理,特质和行为评定与效价、情绪评定均呈显著正相关,回归分析则只有效价评定进入方程。结果说明,儿童完成情绪性特质推理任务时与情绪理解能力关系密切,而对双重性质特质推理时更多的与效价理解能力有关。     

4～7岁儿童基于不同可信度特质和情景的信任判断

以120名4～7岁儿童为研究对象, 采用改编后的对偶选择范式, 探讨儿童基于两种不同的可信度特质(善良和能力)和两个与信任有关的情景进行的信任判断能力。结果显示:(1)4~7岁儿童在善良情景正确判断率都高于随机水平, 而在能力情景中, 仅6岁和7岁儿童的正确率显著高于随机水平; (2)6岁儿童虽然已经具备依据可信度特质和情景做出正确的信任判断的能力, 但是在善意情景中的信任判断能力要好于在能力情景中的信任判断能力, 而7岁儿童在能力情景和善意情景中的信任判断能力则没有显著差异;(3)同时考虑两种可信度特质和情景时, 5～7 岁儿童的正确率高于了随机水平, 并且6、7岁儿童的正确率要显著高于5岁儿童。这些结果表明儿童到了5岁才初步发展出同时考虑可信度特质和情景进行信任判断的能力, 直到7岁这一能力才相对成熟和稳定。     

童年期儿童应对方式发展的成因:特质论还是情境论？

为了探讨童年期儿童应对方式发展的成因,本研究以应对方式问卷和心理素质量表为研究工具,对355名小学三年级学生进行了2年追踪调查。考察了不同应对方式在学业困难情境和同伴冲突情境下的发展轨迹,以及特质性因素心理素质对于不同应对方式发展的影响。结果表明：（1）童年期儿童的积极应对方式在学业困难和同伴冲突情境中有着不同的发展轨迹,而消极应对方式在学业和人际情境中有着相同的发展轨迹。（2）特质因素心理素质在不同的时间均可以显著预测童年期儿童的积极或消极应对方式。这说明童年期儿童应对方式的发展是情境因素和特质因素共同作用的结果。     

3～5岁儿童基于能力特质进行信任判断的策略及其发展

研究采用对偶选择的范式考察了3～5岁儿童基于能力特质进行信任判断的策略。让144名3～5岁儿童在面对能力强和不挑食这两类人时做出信任判断。结果发现3～4岁儿童的信任判断受老师评价偏向的影响,他们的信任选择与老师评价偏向一致。5岁儿童的信任判断则不受老师评价偏向的影响。这些结果表明3～4岁儿童信任判断的策略是依据特质效价,5岁儿童的策略是依据特质意义。     

Differences in early parent-child conversations about negative versus positive emotions: implications for the development of psychological understanding

The authors examined whether the quality and content of everyday parent-child conversations about negative emotions are the same or different from everyday talk about positive emotions. Extensive longitudinal speech samples of 6 children and their parents were analyzed for several critical features when the children were between 2 and 5 years of age. Results showed that children and parents talked about past emotions, the causes of emotions, and connections between emotions and other mental states at higher rates during conversations about negative emotions than during conversations about positive emotions. Discourse about negative emotions also included a larger emotion vocabulary, more open-ended questions, and more talk about other people. These differences appeared before the children's 3rd birthdays and remained consistent through the preschool years. The findings strengthen and clarify current understanding of young children's articulation and knowledge about people's minds, lives, and emotions.     

Stereotypes and beliefs about different ethnic groups in Spain. A study with Spanish and Latin American children living in Madrid

96 Spanish and Latin American children from 3 grades in Madrid reported their knowledge of positive and negative stereotypes regarding Spaniards, Gypsies, Latin American and Chinese people. Their personal beliefs about these four ethnic groups were also assessed. Stereotypes about Spaniards were perceived as overwhelmingly positive and least negatively while stereotypes about Gypsies were rarely positive and often negative. Spanish children attributed more positive and fewer negative stereotypes to Chinese immigrants than Latin American children did. Older children reported more positive stereotypes about Gypsies than younger children and older Spanish children reported fewer positive stereotypes for their own group than their younger counterparts. Older children's personal beliefs about Gypsies were less consistent with negative stereotypes than younger children's. Older children also showed greater discrepancy of their personal beliefs with positive stereotypes of Spaniards than younger children did. Findings are discussed within the context of socio-cognitive approaches.     

父母离异对子心理发展的影响:计票式文献分析途径的研究

采用计票式文献分析技术对国内1994-2005年间关于离异家庭子女心理特点的35篇研究进行了系统回顾,发现所有研究都报告了父母离异对子女心理发展存在消极影响。他们存在更多躯体化、强迫、焦虑、敌对、孤独、冲动等心理健康问题;行为问题发生率高于完整家庭对照组,主要表现为孤僻、退缩、抑郁、社交不良等行为问题;在人格方面更具神经质特征,表现出更强的掩饰性,人格倾向性容易出现过分内向或过分外向的两极化趋势;在自我意识方面更消极;在学业方面表现较差;知觉到更强的压力而且采用更消极的应对方式,有着更高的犯罪率和自杀意念。对目前研究方法上的不足之处进行了探讨,对国内外研究内容和结果上的差异进行了分析,对未来的研究方向提出了意见和建议。     

The emergence of ethnic and racial attitudes in preschool-aged children

The author assessed preschool-aged children's attitudes (N = 70) toward their own and 2 ethnic or racial out-groups using traditional forced-choice measures and a new method that assessed children's out-group attitudes independently of their attitudes toward their own group. When required to assign positive and negative traits to either their own group or an ethnic or racial out-group, children evaluated their own group favorably relative to the out-group in question. However, when not forced to choose between groups, children evaluated out-groups positively, indicating that own-group preference relative to ethnic and racial out-groups was not equated with out-group rejection. Children's positive out-group evaluations did vary with the out-group being considered and were reflective of the local social context, suggesting the influence of social learning. The results indicate that young children's positive feelings toward their own group do not necessarily involve or cause negative out-group attitudes and that various factors might differentially influence in-group and out-group attitudes.     

我国3～6岁儿童个性类型及发展特点的研究

该文在以往中国儿童个性结构研究基础上,以问卷调查（n=927）方式,将层次聚类和迭代聚类两种方法结合起来,同时采用理论分析等方法最终确定我国3～6岁儿童的个性类型包括认可型、矛盾型、拒绝型及中间型四类。其中认可型属于积极个性类型,矛盾型和拒绝型属于消极个性类型。研究表明,中班到大班阶段是幼儿个性发展相对重要的时期。男女幼儿在多个个性维度及大部分具体特质方面存在着明显的性别差异。     

亲子亲合、逆境信念与农村留守儿童积极/消极情绪的关系

分别以173名双亲外出儿童和167名父亲外出儿童为被试,采用问卷法,探讨了父子/母子亲合、逆境信念与两类留守儿童积极/消极情绪的关系及作用机制。结果表明：（1）双亲外出儿童的逆境信念水平显著低于父亲外出儿童;（2）在双亲外出儿童群体中,父子亲合能够显著预测其积极情绪和消极情绪,而母子亲合仅能显著预测其积极情绪;在父亲外出儿童群体中,父子亲合仅能够预测其消极情绪,母子亲合则能够预测其积极情绪;（3）逆境信念在父子亲合/母子亲合与积极情绪之间起中介作用,但这种中介作用只存在于双亲外出儿童群体中。     

From ugly duckling to swan?: Japanese and American beliefs about the stability and origins of traits

Two studies compared the development of beliefs about the stability and origins of physical and psychological traits in Japan and the United States in three age groups: 5–6-year-olds, 8–10-year-olds, and college students. The youngest children in both cultures were the most optimistic about negative traits changing in a positive direction over development and being maintained over the aging period. The belief that individual differences in traits are inborn increased with age, and in all age groups, this belief was related to predictions of greater trait stability. In both cultures, all ages believed positive traits would be maintained over development. In addition to developmental similarities across cultures, cultural variations, consistent with the hypothesis that interdependent cultures have a more incremental view of traits, were present. Japanese participants were more optimistic than American participants about negative traits changing towards the positive and were more likely to attribute differences in trait expression to effort.     

Understanding the emotional past: relations between parent and child contributions in emotionally negative and nonnegative events

The past event conversations of 33 mothers with their 3-year-old children (18 girls and 15 boys) were selected from a larger sample based on their discussion of negative events. Negative events included both those that were negative in topic and those that contained negative incidents but were otherwise positively themed. Within-subjects comparisons were made between the negative events and a neutral or positive event. There were few differences in how mothers and their children talked about negative and nonnegative events. Children did include more interpretations (internal state and causal references) in their negative event conversations. For both event types, mothers who talked more about the past events had children who reported more. When maternal talkativeness was controlled, involving children in the negative event conversations through deflecting the conversational turn predicted children's total contributions and number of interpretations. Repeating information and requests for information while constraining the topic was negatively related to the number of details children reported for nonnegative past events. Conversations about minor negative experiences demonstrate that mothers can influence children's involvement in discussions and understanding of the past.