High school athletes’ self-determined motivation: The independent and interactive effects of coach,father, and mother autonomy support

ObjectivesThe purpose of the study was to examine the independent and interactive influences of athletes’ perceptions of autonomy support from their coaches, fathers, and mothers on the athletes’ self-determined motivation.DesignCross-sectional survey.MethodHigh school athletes (N = 335; M age = 15.75 years; 62.4% female; 84.2% Caucasian) completed surveys assessing the constructs of interest near the end of their season.ResultsHierarchical regression analysis results showed that autonomy support from all three social agents significantly and positively predicted self-determined motivation (R² = 0.32), and the two- and three-way interactions significantly added to the prediction (total R² = 0.35). Results showed that a relatively high level of self-determined motivation was associated with the perception that at least two of the three social agents provided high levels of autonomy support.ConclusionsThe provision of autonomy support from coaches, mothers, and fathers relate to athletes’ self-determined motivation both independently and interactively.     

Does students’ self-determined motivation toward Physical Education influence the effectiveness of a fitness teaching unit? A cluster-randomized controlled trial and cluster analysis

ObjectiveThe aim was to compare the effect of a Physical Education (PE)-based fitness teaching unit to improve cardiorespiratory fitness levels between students’ motivational profiles toward PE in high-school students using cluster analysis.MethodOne hundred and eighty-one high school students (final sample 165, 52.1% females; M_age = 12.9 ± 0.9) from nine pre-established classes were cluster-randomly assigned into an experimental group (n = 120) and control group (n = 61). The experimental group performed a fitness teaching unit twice a week for nine weeks. Students’ baseline of self-determined motivation toward PE was measured by the Spanish version of the Perceived Locus of Causality-II Scale. Cardiorespiratory fitness was measured before and after the intervention through the 20-m shuttle run test.ResultsBased on a two-stage cluster analysis approach, four clusters were identified in both groups. Results showed that the experimental group students within the high self-determined motivational profiles toward PE (i.e., clusters 2 and 4) statistically significantly improved their cardiorespiratory fitness levels compared with the control group students in cluster 2 (i.e., those with moderate self-determined motivational profile toward PE) (p < 0.05; d = 0.37–0.48). However, statistically significant differences between the students with a moderate autonomous motivation profile toward PE (i.e., cluster 3 of the experimental group) and the control group students in clusters 2 and 3 were not found (p > 0.05). Conclusions: With the objective of increasing all students’ cardiorespiratory fitness levels, PE teachers should encourage students’ motivation toward PE applying specific motivational strategies during PE lessons.     

Group cohesion and relatedness as predictors of self-determined motivation and burnout in adolescent female athletes

ObjectivesAthlete burnout is the result of a maladaptive sport experience that is influenced by the social context. A salient social contextual feature of youth sport is group cohesion. Cohesion may link with burnout through its association with relatedness and self-determined motivation. The current study was designed to test a model in which cohesion associates with burnout by way of relatedness and self-determined motivation.DesignCross-sectional survey-based study.MethodFemale youth soccer athletes (N = 276; M age = 14.9 years, SD = 1.3) completed measures of task and social cohesion, relatedness, self-determined motivation, and burnout.ResultsTask (β = 0.26) and social (β = 0.59) cohesion associated with perceptions of relatedness. In turn, relatedness positively linked with self-determined motivation (β = 0.38), which in turn negatively associated with global burnout (β = −0.79). The indirect effects from task cohesion to burnout (β = −0.08) and from social cohesion to burnout (β = −0.18) by way of relatedness and self-determined motivation were significant.ConclusionsResults support the proposed model whereby greater cohesion associates with an athlete’s feelings of relatedness, which links to more self-determined motivation and, consequently, lower burnout perceptions. Future research is needed to assess support for causality of these links and explore how contextual factors such as the teammate-created motivational climate contributes to group cohesion and relatedness perceptions within this burnout model.     

Teammate social support,burnout, and self-determined motivation in collegiate athletes

ObjectiveThere is limited understanding of how specific components of social support are associated with athlete burnout and self-determined motivation, as most investigations have exclusively targeted overall support satisfaction. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine if perceived support availability and received support, over and above support satisfaction, were associated with these correlates of psychological well-being in athletes. We also examined potential team-level variation in burnout and self-determined motivation.DesignCross-sectional.MethodUnited States college athletes (N = 235; M_age = 19.8 years) completed reliable and valid assessments of study variables via an online questionnaire.ResultsMultilevel linear modeling showed a lack of team-level variation in burnout and self-determined motivation. Regression analyses showed perceived support availability to be inversely associated with burnout and positively associated with self-determined motivation. This was over and above support satisfaction, which demonstrated the same pattern of associations. Received support did not meaningfully associate with burnout or self-determined motivation over and above support satisfaction.ConclusionResults suggest that the perception of support availability from teammates, regardless of received support, was an important correlate of burnout and self-determined motivation in sport. Also, the general lack of team-level variation in the criterion variables suggests that burnout and self-determined motivation perceptions were largely driven by individual experiences.     

The effects of aerobic- versus strength-training on body image among young women with pre-existing body image concerns

This experiment compared the effects of aerobic-training (AT) versus strength-training (ST) on body image among young women with pre-existing body image concerns. Theory-based correlates of body image change were also examined. Participants were 46 women (M age = 21.5 years), randomly assigned to an 8-week AT or ST intervention consisting of supervised exercise 3 days/week. Multidimensional measures of body image were administered pre- and post-intervention, along with measures of physical fitness, perceived fitness, and exercise self-efficacy. Women in the AT condition reported greater reductions in social physique anxiety (p = .001) and tended to report greater improvements in appearance evaluation (p = .06) than women in the ST condition. Changes in perceived fatness, perceived aerobic endurance and aerobic self-efficacy were significantly correlated with body image change (ps < .003). Results provide direction for prescribing exercise to improve body image and advancing theory to account for the effects of exercise.     

“Pay the piper”: It helps initially,but motivation takes a toll on self-control

ObjectiveTo investigate the aftereffects of anticipating future self-control and motivation on self-control strength depletion patterns.DesignSingle blind, randomized 2 (autonomy-supportive motivation/controlling motivation) × 2 (anticipation/no anticipation) factorial.MethodParticipants (N = 72) performed four sequential self-control strength challenges: an initial endurance handgrip squeeze followed by the Stroop task and two additional endurance handgrip squeezes. A sequential randomization procedure was used to allocate participants to one of four conditions: anticipation/autonomy-supportive motivation (n = 19), anticipation/controlling motivation (n = 17), no anticipation/autonomy-supportive motivation (n = 18), and no anticipation/controlling motivation (n = 18).ResultsParticipants who anticipated future self-control depletion conserved resources on the second task by completing fewer words on a Stroop task compared to controls. Participants who received autonomy-supportive instructions performed significantly better than controls on a third task (endurance handgrip squeeze), but worse than controls on the fourth task (another endurance handgrip squeeze). There were no significant interactions between anticipation and motivation (p > .05).ConclusionsResults support previous findings reflecting conservation and motivation effects on self-control strength. This was the first study to show that autonomy-supportive instructions may assist self-control performance in the short term but ultimately depletes self-control strength and impairs performance in the long term.     

Women who use exercise as a compensatory behavior: How do they differ from those who do not?

ObjectivesThis research examined group differences between women who reported using exercise as a compensatory behavior (ECB; n = 73) and women who did not report using exercise as a compensatory behavior (NECB; n = 133) on alcohol and exercise behavior, drinking and exercise motivation, and several related constructs.DesignA cross-sectional design was used.MethodsUndergraduate women (M age = 19.5 years, SD = 3.01 years) completed self-report measures regarding their alcohol use, alcohol-related problems, exercise behavior, alcohol and exercise motivations, impulsivity, body dissatisfaction, and dietary restraint.ResultsResults indicated that women in the ECB group reported consuming more alcohol, more binge drinking episodes, more alcohol-related problems, higher alcohol and exercise motivations, more exercise, and greater impulsivity, body dissatisfaction, and dietary restraint than women in the NECB group (p's ranging from <.0001 to .017).ConclusionsInterestingly, women who use exercise as a compensatory behavior consumed higher amounts of alcohol, but did not drink more frequently than women who did not use exercise as a compensatory behavior. Women who use exercise as a compensatory behavior also endorse drinking and exercise motives more strongly than women who did not use exercise as a compensatory behavior.     

Uncovering hockey fans' motivations behind their derogatory behaviors and how these motives predict psychological well-being and quality of social identity

ObjectiveThis article tested whether hockey fans' selfdetermined and non self-determined motivation for engaging in derogatory behaviors against an outgroup team predicted the frequency of these behaviors, fans' psychological well-being, and the quality of their social identity as a fan of their team. The two psychological theories we employ in the current research (i.e., self-determination theory and social identity theory) have different assumptions concerning the motivation behind derogatory fan behavior.DesignThree correlational studies were conducted among hockey fans.MethodsFans of rival hockey fans (Study 1; N = 45), fans of the Montreal Canadiens (Study 2; N = 181), and fans of NHL teams (Study 3; N = 105) completed measures of selfdetermination to engage in derogatory behaviors, frequency of these behaviors, psychological well-being, and quality of social identity. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to test if the frequency, well-being, and quality of social identity variables were predicted by the self-determined and non self-determined motivations to engage in derogatory behaviors.ResultsAs expected based on self-determination theory (SDT), the more hockey fans engage in derogatory behaviors for non self-determined reasons, the lower their well-being and the less frequently they report engaging in the derogatory behaviors. Moreover, as expected based on social identity theory (SIT), the more hockey fans engage in the derogatory behaviors for self-determined reasons, the higher their well-being, the frequency of these behaviors, and the more positive their social identity.ConclusionsTheses results are interpreted in light of SDT and SIT's theoretical propositions. Comparisons are made with prior studies conducted on this topic.     

Motivation and physical activity levels in bariatric patients involved in a self-determination theory-based physical activity program

ObjectiveThis study examines the associations between pre-to post-intervention changes in motivation and physical activity (PA) levels of bariatric patients involved in a 6-month postoperative PA program based on self-determination theory (SDT). We also explore the extent to which patients’ perception of autonomy support and basic psychological need satisfaction during the program were associated with changes in their motivation to exercise.MethodForty patients were assigned to a motivational PA intervention (MPAI-G) or to a control group (CG). Both groups completed questionnaires assessing the variables of interest and wore GT3X accelerometers before surgery and after the program.ResultsThirty-two participants (78.1% female) completed all measures and were included in the present analyses. CG showed greater increases in integrated (d = −1.60, 95% CI [−2.40, −0.81]) and identified regulation (d = −0.75, 95% CI [−1.47, −0.03]) than MPAI-G. However, the MPAI-G experienced increases in introjected regulation (d = 1.95, 95% CI [1.11, 2.79]) and greater decreases in external regulation (d = −1.00, 95% CI [−1.74, −0.27]) than CG, which were associated with decreases in sedentary activity and increases in light and total PA. Oppositely to the CG, amotivation decreased in the MPAI-G (d = −2.98, 95% CI [−3.98, −1.97]) and it was related to increases in light and total PA. Changes in exercise motivation were associated with perceived autonomy support and basic psychological need satisfaction during the program.ConclusionThe SDT-based PA program gave rise to greater changes in controlled forms of motivation and amotivation than in autonomous motivation in post-bariatric surgery patients.     

“I deserve a treat”: Exercise motivation as a predictor of post-exercise dietary licensing beliefs and implicit associations toward unhealthy snacks

ObjectiveTo explore whether exercise motivation predicted two of the potential mechanisms that may explain why individuals engage in unhealthy compensatory snack consumption following exercise; specifically (a) post-exercise conscious licensing beliefs, and (b) post-exercise implicit attitudes toward unhealthy snacks.DesignObservational study.MethodOne hundred and nineteen healthy participants completed a 40-min session of moderate intensity stationary cycling, and subsequently completed measures of explicit licensing and implicit associations toward unhealthy snack foods and drinks.ResultsIndividuals driven by more controlled (relative to autonomous) forms of exercise motivation reported greater compensatory licensing beliefs (Est = −0.08, p < 0.001) even after accounting for a number of relevant covariates. No significant relationship emerged between exercise motivation and implicit associations toward unhealthy snacks (Est = 0.12, p = 0.81).ConclusionThe findings demonstrate that exercise motivation may predict conscious licensing beliefs toward unhealthy snack foods and drinks post-exercise. Understanding the modifiable factors – such as exercise motivation – that predict post-exercise dietary beliefs is important for supporting individuals’ weight loss and health goals.     

Randomized Face-to-face vs. Home exercise interventions in pregnant women with gestational diabetes

ObjectivesEvaluate effects of a theoretically-based, semi-intensive (Face-to-Face; F2F) exercise intervention and minimum-contact (Home) exercise intervention to the standard care (Control) on exercise, its motivational determinants, blood glucose levels, and insulin use of pregnant women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM).DesignRandomized control trial with two intervention arms and control (standard care).MethodParticipants (N = 65) were randomized to a Control (standard prenatal care/GDM dietary counseling), Home (standard care + phone education/support + home exercise), or F2F (standard care + on-site education/support + guided exercise with instructor on 2 days/week) group from ∼20 weeks gestation to delivery. Assessments of exercise and motivational determinants were obtained at baseline (20-weeks gestation) and follow-up (32-weeks gestation). Blood glucose levels (fasting/postprandial mg/dL) and insulin use were extrapolated from medical records.ResultsAt the 32-week follow-up, the F2F group had significantly higher exercise min, pedometer steps/day, and motivational determinants (attitude, subjective norm, perceived control, intention) than controls (p's < 0.05) and significantly higher exercise min and subjective norm than the Home group (p's < 0.05); these effect sizes were medium-large (η² = 0.11-0.23). There was a medium effect (η² = 0.13) on postprandial blood glucose at 36-weeks gestation with the F2F group having lower values than controls. Although not significant, the F2F group started insulin later (33 weeks gestation) than the Home (27 weeks) and Control (31 weeks) groups.ConclusionA theoretically-based, F2F exercise intervention has multiple health benefits and may be the necessary approach for promoting exercise motivation and behavior among GDM women.     

Déterminants de la procrastination académique : motivation autodéterminée,estime de soi et degré de maximation

We aimed (1) to examine the link between procrastination and academic success in students from French university, and (2) to explore whether self-determined motivation, self-esteem, and degree of maximization are good predictors of procrastination. Four scales (procrastination, self-determined motivation, self-esteem, and degree of maximization) were given at the beginning of the first semester (T1; n = 952) and at the end of the first semester (T2; n = 691). Results indicated that (1) academic procrastination is negatively correlated to academic success and (2) the three predictors (self-determined motivation, self-esteem, and degree of maximization) explained relatively well procrastination at T1 and T2.     

Long-term efficacy of exercise across diagnostically heterogenous mental disorders and the mediating role of affect regulation skills

BackgroundExercise interventions are efficacious in reducing disorder-specific symptoms in various mental disorders. However, little is known about long-term transdiagnostic efficacy of exercise across heterogenous mental disorders and the potential mechanisms underlying treatment effects.MethodsPhysically inactive outpatients, with depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, insomnia or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder were randomized to a standardized 12-week exercise intervention, combining moderate exercise with behavior change techniques (BCTs) (n = 38), or a passive control group (n = 36). Primary outcome was global symptom severity (Symptom Checklist-90, SCL-90-R) and secondary outcomes were self-reported exercise (Physical Activity, Exercise, and Sport Questionnaire), exercise-specific affect regulation (Physical Activity-related Health Competence Questionnaire) and depression (SCL-90-R) assessed at baseline (T1), post-treatment (T2) and one year after post-treatment (T3). Intention-to-treat analyses were conducted using linear mixed models and structural equations modeling.ResultsFrom T1 to T3, the intervention group significantly improved on global symptom severity (d = −0.43, p = .031), depression among a depressed subsample (d = −0.62, p = .014), exercise (d = 0.45, p = .011) and exercise-specific affect regulation (d = 0.44, p = .028) relative to the control group. The intervention group was more likely to reveal clinically significant changes from T1 to T3 (p = .033). Increases in exercise-specific affect regulation mediated intervention effects on global symptom severity (ß = −0.28, p = .037) and clinically significant changes (ß = −0.24, p = .042).ConclusionsThe exercise intervention showed long-term efficacy among a diagnostically heterogeneous outpatient sample and led to long-lasting exercise behavior change. Long-term increases in exercise-specific affect regulation within exercise interventions seem to be essential for long-lasting symptom reduction.     

Exercise training and health-related quality of life in generalized anxiety disorder

ObjectiveTo quantify the effects of six-weeks of resistance (RET) and aerobic exercise training (AET) on quality of life (QoL) among sedentary women with Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD).DesignData from our published randomized controlled trial of the effects of six-weeks of either RET or AET among GAD patients were analyzed.MethodThirty women with GAD were randomized to either six weeks of twice-weekly lower-body weightlifting or cycling, or wait-list control (WL). SF-36 subscales assessed dimensions of QoL. Hedges’ d effect sizes (95%CIs) quantified the magnitude of change in response to exercise training compared to WL.ResultsRET significantly improved role-physical (d = 1.04; 95%CI: [0.11–1.97]), role-emotional (d = 0.96; [0.04–1.89]), and mental health (d = 1.05; [0.11–1.98]). AET resulted in significant improvements in physical function (d = 1.31; [0.34–2.27]) and vitality (d = 0.93; [0.01–1.85]).ConclusionsExercise training improves dimensions of QoL among GAD patients. The largest effects were observed for role impairments, physical function, vitality, and mental health.     

Sizing up physical activity: The relationships between dog characteristics,dog owners' motivations,and dog walking

ObjectiveRegular dog walking is likely a symbiotic relationship between the needs of the dog and its owner. This relationship has seen limited attention. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between dog characteristics, dog owners' perceptions of responsibility and attachment to their dogs, and the qualities of dog owner exercise motivations (self-determined regulations) with dog walking behavior.MethodParticipants were 228 adult dog owners who completed an online survey that included demographics, dog walking, dog responsibility/attachment and exercise regulations.ResultsUsing mediation procedures, the results showed that the owner's sense of dog walking responsibility and walking relationship was completely mediated by identified (indirect β = .06; bootstrapped lower CI = .02, bootstrapped higher CI = .17) and intrinsic (β = .05; bootstrapped lower CI = .01, bootstrapped higher CI = .15) regulations but these regulations could not account for substantial variance in the dog-related factors. Instead, intrinsic regulation (β = .27), identified regulation (β = .20), dog size (β = .22), and energy level of the dog (β = .13) all contributed to explain 30% of walking behavior.ConclusionA sense of responsibility to walk the dog, generally the most reliable correlate in past dog walking research, appears to align with more self-determined forms of motivation than controlled. The findings, however, support the premise that dog walking behavior may be a complex mix of human and dog-related factors. This dog and owner relationship may need consideration for successful future dog walking promotion initiatives.     

Affective responses to 10-minute and 30-minute walks in sedentary,overweight women: Relationships with theory-based correlates of walking for exercise

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to examine affective responses to 10-min and 30-min walks among sedentary, overweight women. Secondary purposes were to: a) examine differences in theory-based correlates of future participation in walking for exercise; and b) determine if the affective responses were related to these correlates.Design/MethodsTwenty-three sedentary, overweight women (M age = 26.62 years; BMI = 33.53 kg/m²) completed 10-min walk, 30-min walk, and quiet rest (QR) control conditions. Affective responses were assessed prior to, during, and following each condition. Self-efficacy and intention for regular participation in multiple 10-min walks or single 30-min walks for exercise during the next month were also assessed post-exercise.Results/ConclusionsAnalyses revealed that improvements in affective responses (p < 0.05) emerged during and following both walking sessions while no benefits were observed with QR. Self-efficacy (p < 0.01) and intention (p < 0.01) to walk for exercise in the future were significantly higher for multiple 10-min walks. Correlation analyses demonstrated that affective responses were most strongly and consistently correlated with intention and self-efficacy for future participation following the 10-min walk. These findings demonstrate that, while both walks resulted in similar affective benefits, sedentary, overweight women reported greater intention and self-efficacy to participate in multiple brief walks for exercise in the future.     

Social-contextual and intrapersonal antecedents of coaches' basic need satisfaction: The intervening variable effect of providing autonomy-supportive coaching

ObjectivesBased on Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2012) and in line with Mageau and Vallerand's (2003) motivational model of the coach-athlete relationship, a new model involving antecedents associated with coaches' self-report measure of total need satisfaction (TNS) was tested. This model hypothesized that: (1) coaches' perceptions of a socially united group of athletes and their self-determined motivation for coaching would relate positively to coaches' provision of autonomy-supportive coaching (ASC), whereas perception of parental pressure in the youth sport context would relate negatively to coaches' provision of ASC; (2) coaches' provision of ASC towards their athletes would, in turn, relate positively to their self-report measure of TNS; and (3) the relation between coaches' perceptions of the sport context, along with their self-determined motivation for coaching, and coaches' self-report measure of TNS would be mediated by coaches' own provision of ASC.DesignA cross-sectional study.MethodsParticipants were 222 (M_age = 42.3, SD = 6.1) youth soccer coaches.ResultsSEM analyses supported the hypothesized model in which coaches' perceptions of a socially united group of athletes and their self-determined motivation for coaching related positively to coaches' self-report measure of TNS through coaches' provision of ASC. In contrast, coaches' perceptions of parental pressure in the youth sport context was unrelated to coaches' self-report measure of TNS via coaches' provision of ASC.ConclusionsFindings support previous research by demonstrating the psychological benefit of providing autonomy support to others.     

Women's exercise identity increases after a 16-week exercise RCT and is linked to behavior maintenance at follow-up

BackgroundRegular exercise is critical for disease prevention, but adherence to public health guidelines is poor. Exercise identity is purported to be associated with exercise behavior maintenance, but the extant literature is largely cross-sectional and of low/modest quality.PurposeTo examine change in exercise identity after completion of a supervised exercise intervention, as well as associations between change in exercise identity and exercise maintenance at 6-months follow-up.MethodsN = 276 insufficiently physically active women were randomized to a 16-week, supervised exercise training intervention with 4 conditions fully crossed on intensity (vigorous/moderate) and duration (long/short). Exercise identity was measured pre- and post-intervention and assessments of exercise motivation and behavior frequency were collected at 6-months post-intervention follow-up.ResultsOn average, participants experienced a statistically significant change in exercise identity over the course of the intervention, t (128) = 7.94, p < .001, but identity change scores did not differ across training conditions, p = .91. Identity change was significantly positively related to changes in other theory-informed, motivation-based determinants of exercise, and predicted an additional 16.17 min of exercise per week, on average, at follow-up, b = 16.76, t (103) = 2.30, p = .023.ConclusionsParticipants experienced increased self-identification with exercise after 16-weeks of training, but training volume did not influence the amount of identity change. As expected, greater change in exercise identity was associated with higher levels of exercise behavior at 6-months post-intervention follow-up (ClinicalTrials.gov number NCT02032628 ).