Enrichment processes and gain spirals at work and at home: A 3‐year cross‐lagged panel study

In this study, we combined the Job Demands‐Resources model and Conservation of Resources theory with work‐family enrichment (WFE) literature, using the Resource–Gain–Development perspective in particular, in order to (1) investigate the motivating and wellness‐promoting role of job and home resources in predicting enrichment in work and family leading to further positive outcomes, and (2) examine positive gain spirals between the study variables over time. More specifically, we investigated whether job resources predict work engagement through WFE, and similarly, whether home resources predict marital satisfaction through FWE. We also investigated the reciprocal effects between job and home resources, enrichment in both directions, and well‐being in both domains. The study was based on a two‐wave, 3‐year, full panel design among Finnish dentists (N= 1,632). Results showed that job resources at T1 predicted WFE at T2, and WFE and engagement reciprocally influenced each other over time. Home resources at T1, on the other hand, did not predict family‐work enrichment (FEW) at T2; instead, FWE at T1 influenced both home resources and marital satisfaction at T2. Moreover, we found reciprocal impacts (‘gain spirals’) between domain‐specific resources (job/home resources) and domain‐specific well‐being (engagement/marital satisfaction) and between WFE and engagement, thus supporting the Conservation of Resources theory. The same results were found for both genders, suggesting that similar enrichment processes may take place among both women and men. Theoretically, this study suggests that adding the idea of positive feedback loops might benefit the models theorizing WFE.     

The Influence of Emotional Dissonance on Subjective Health and Job Satisfaction: Testing the Stress–Strain–Outcome Model

We adopted the stress–strain–outcome model ( Koeske & Koeske, 1993 ) to examine the influence of work stressors on subjective health and job satisfaction among Chinese service employees. Two independent studies were reported. In the first study, 271 employees provided cross‐sectional data on work characteristics, emotional dissonance, work strain, and job satisfaction. Structural equation modeling showed that work characteristics were related to emotional dissonance, which, in turn, was associated with work strain, with the latter eventually predicting job satisfaction. Study 2 was a 3‐month longitudinal survey with a separate sample of 155 call‐center and retail‐shop representatives. Longitudinal data showed that emotional dissonance at Time 1 significantly predicted work strain at Time 2, which predicted job satisfaction at Time 2.     

Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) and Performance: A Meta‐Analytic Review

This paper reports a meta‐analysis that examines the relationship between leader–member exchange (LMX) relationship quality and a multidimensional model of work performance (task, citizenship, and counterproductive performance). The results show a positive relationship between LMX and task performance (146 samples, ρ = .30) as well as citizenship performance (97 samples, ρ = .34), and negatively with counterproductive performance (19 samples, ρ = ?.24). Of note, there was a positive relationship between LMX and objective task performance (20 samples, ρ = .24). Trust, motivation, empowerment, and job satisfaction mediated the relationship between LMX and task and citizenship performance with trust in the leader having the largest effect. There was no difference due to LMX measurement instrument (e.g., LMX7, LMX‐MDM). Overall, the relationship between LMX and performance was weaker when (a) measures were obtained from a different source or method and (b) LMX was measured by the follower than the leader (with common source‐ and method‐biased effects stronger for leader‐rated LMX quality). Finally, there was evidence for LMX leading to task performance but not for reverse or reciprocal directions of effects.     

The Dynamic Relationships of Work Affect and Job Satisfaction with Perceptions of Fit

This study assessed the longitudinal relationship between perceived fit (i.e., person–organization fit, person–job fit) and affect‐based variables (i.e., job satisfaction, negative affect, positive affect) using momentary (i.e., within‐person level) and stable (i.e., between‐person level) assessments of both sets of variables. In doing so, we tested 3 theoretical models of the perceived fit and work affect relationship (i.e., fit preceding affect; affect preceding fit; reciprocal fit–affect relations) to determine (a) the antecedents and consequences of fit perceptions, (b) whether fit perceptions exhibit meaningful within‐person variability, and (c) if direct fit perceptions are simply the result of affect/job satisfaction at work or can influence such work experiences. In addition, we examined whether the relationships between affect/job satisfaction and fit perceptions were homologous (i.e., similar) across the 2 levels of analysis (i.e., within‐person and between‐person). Results indicated that fit primarily preceded affect and job satisfaction at both levels of analysis, though some specific relationships exhibited reciprocal causality and others supported affect as an antecedent of fit perceptions. Our findings paint a complex picture of the causal relationship between perceived fit and work affect.     

The interaction between leader–member exchange and perceived job security in predicting employee altruism and work performance

This study investigated the relationships among leader–member exchange (LMX), perceived job security, and employee performance. Drawing on the job demands–resources model and conservation of resources theory, we expected both LMX and perceived job security would affect employee altruism and work performance in a positive manner. In addition, LMX and perceived job security were expected to interact to predict the two outcome variables. The hypotheses were tested with a sample of 184 employees in a state‐owned enterprise in China. Our results showed that LMX, but not perceived job security, was positively related to employee altruism and work performance. Additionally, the effect of LMX on altruism was stronger for employees perceiving less job security. The findings indicated that LMX as a job resource becomes more impactful to altruistic performance when employees feel less secure at work.     

THE ROLE OF JOB EMBEDDEDNESS ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE: THE INTERACTIVE EFFECTS WITH LEADER–MEMBER EXCHANGE AND ORGANIZATION‐BASED SELF‐ESTEEM

Although job embeddedness was originally conceptualized to explain job stability or “why people stay” in their organizations, this investigation examines the role of job embeddedness as a hypothesized moderator of relationships among leader–member exchange (LMX), organization‐based self‐esteem (OBSE), organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs), and task performance. Findings from 2 studies involving 367 employees and 41 supervisors, 1 in a telecommunications company and another in a manufacturing setting, support hypotheses concerning job embeddedness as a moderator of the relationship between (a) LMX and task performance within a telecommunication sample and LMX and OCBs in a sample of manufacturing employees, and (b) OBSE and OCBs in a manufacturing sample. Further, a hypothesized 3‐way interaction involving job embeddedness, LMX, and OBSE on task performance was found in a sample of manufacturing employees. The implications of these findings for studying and managing job embeddedness in relation to employee performance are discussed.     

How perceived interpersonal justice relates to job burnout and intention to leave: The role of leader–member exchange and cognition‐based trust in leaders

Intense competition among companies makes it particularly important for organizations to retain talented and skilled employees to maintain their competitive advantage. This study examines the linkage between employees' perceptions of the interpersonal justice demonstrated by their leaders and consequent job burnout resulting in turnover intention by focusing on the mediating role of leader–member exchange (LMX) as well as the moderating role of employees' cognition‐based trust in their leaders. Data were obtained from 158 MBA students attending a large university in South Korea. Using structural equation modelling, we examined an integrative model that combines interpersonal justice, LMX, job burnout, and turnover intention. The results reveal that (a) LMX partially mediates the relationships between interpersonal justice and job burnout and (b) employees' cognition‐based trust in their leaders moderates the relationship between LMX and job burnout. By examining the mediating role of LMX as well as the moderating role of cognition‐based trust in the relationship between perceived interpersonal justice and employee job burnout, this study (1) provides a comprehensive explanation of employee job burnout and (2) outlines the implications for job burnout research and practice.     

Supervisors' upward exchange relationships and subordinate outcomes: testing the multilevel mediation role of empowerment

This study empirically examined the proposition that supervisors' exchange relationships with their own supervisors (i.e., leader-leader exchange, or LLX) are related to their subordinates' work-related outcomes through 3 mechanisms: (a) leaders modeling their LLX to develop and maintain their exchange relationships with their subordinates (i.e., leader-member exchange, or LMX), (b) motivating the team and its members, captured by team and individual empowerment, and (c) facilitating the relationships between LMX and individual outcomes. Analyses of multisource and lagged data from 104 team supervisors and 577 subordinates showed that LMX mediated the positive relationship of LLX on subordinates' individual empowerment. Furthermore, team empowerment and individual empowerment sequentially mediated the positive relationships between LLX and subordinates' job satisfaction and job performance. The authors also found that the indirect relationships of LMX with job satisfaction and job performance via individual empowerment were stronger when LLX was higher. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.     

HOW LEADER–MEMBER EXCHANGE INFLUENCES EFFECTIVE WORK BEHAVIORS: SOCIAL EXCHANGE AND INTERNAL–EXTERNAL EFFICACY PERSPECTIVES

In this article, we propose and test an integrative theory of leader–member exchange (LMX) that extends our understanding of the mechanisms affecting LMX and important organizational outcomes. We argue that LMX enhances job performance and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) through 2 sets of processes. As a result of a social exchange process, high LMX managers encourage reciprocal obligations. These obligations are manifested as subordinate commitment to their supervisors. This commitment, in turn, prompts more OCBs and higher job performance. Through a second process, high LMX supervisors enhance their subordinates’ self‐efficacy and means efficacy, thereby improving job performance. Results of a field study support our predictions. Theoretical and practical implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

A Longitudinal Test of the Job Demands‐Resources Model among Australian University Academics

A longitudinal test of the Job Demands‐Resources (JD‐R) model of work stress and engagement ( Bakker & Demerouti, 2007 ; Demerouti et al., 2001 ) was conducted in a sample of Australian university academics (N= 296). The aim was to extend the JD‐R model by (1) determining how well job demands (work pressure, academic workload) and job resources (procedural fairness, job autonomy) would predict psychological strain and organisational commitment over a three‐year period, and (2) incorporating longitudinal tests of reversed causation. The results of SEM analyses showed that Time 1 resources directly predicted Time 2 strain and organisational commitment, but that Time 1 demands predicted Time 2 strain only indirectly via job resources. We did not find evidence for reversed causation. We discuss possible mediators of the relationships between working conditions and work stress outcomes, and the practical implications of the results.     

Support from the top: supervisors' perceived organizational support as a moderator of leader-member exchange to satisfaction and performance relationships

The authors hypothesized that supervisors' perceived organizational support (POS) would moderate the relationships between leader-member exchange (LMX), job satisfaction, and job performance. On the basis of social exchange theory, supervisors' exchanges with the organization and subordinates should be interconnected. The authors expected that supervisors with high POS would have more resources to exchange with subordinates. Thus, supervisor POS should enhance the relationships between LMX and job satisfaction and LMX and job performance for subordinates. Hierarchical linear modeling analysis provided support for the hypotheses in a sample of 210 subordinates and 38 supervisors of a grocery store chain. The positive relationship between LMX and job satisfaction was stronger when supervisors had high POS. Moreover, LMX was related to performance only when supervisors had high POS.     

The role of leader‐member exchanges in mediating the relationship between locus of control and work reactions

The relationship between locus of control, the quality of exchanges between subordinates and leaders (LMX), and a variety of work‐related reactions (intrinsic/extrinsic job satisfaction, work‐related well‐being, and organizational commitment) are examined. It was predicted that people with an internal locus of control develop better quality relations with their manager and this, in turn, results in more favourable work‐related reactions. Results from two different samples (N=404, and N=51) supported this prediction, and also showed that LMX either fully, or partially, mediated the relationship between locus of control and all the work‐related reactions.     

Trait conscientiousness,leader‐member exchange,job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behaviour: A test of an integrative model

Competing theoretical models were tested, linking organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) to trait conscientiousness, job satisfaction and leader‐member‐exchange (LMX) quality. Meta‐analytic structural equation modelling results provide strongest support for a model wherein more conscientious employees display more OCB, which enhances LMX quality, leading to greater job satisfaction. In‐turn, employees reciprocate their higher job satisfaction by demonstrating more OCB. Beyond supporting the view that OCB represents employee reciprocation for the satisfying job experiences typically stemming from higher‐quality LMX, our findings help to legitimize the notion that OCB may be used, particularly by more conscientious employees, as a means of nurturing higher‐quality LMX and to gain access to more satisfying job experiences.     

Testing causal models of job characteristics and employee well‐being: A replication study using cross‐lagged structural equation modelling

This study re‐evaluated causal relationships between job characteristics (demands, autonomy, social support) and employee well‐being (job satisfaction, emotional exhaustion) in a methodological replication of De Jonge et al. 's (2001) two‐wave panel study. The principal difference was the 2‐year time lag between measurements in this study versus a 1‐year time lag in the original study. Three competing causal models were compared: regular causation (job characteristics influence well‐being); reverse causation (well‐being influences job characteristics); and reciprocal causation (combining regular and reverse causation). As in the original study, regular causation offered the best account. Regarding specific longitudinal paths there were some between‐study differences, which are considered in relation to exposure‐time models of stressor‐strain relations.     

LMX and Subordinate Political Skill: Direct and Interactive Effects on Turnover Intentions and Job Satisfaction

Previous research has demonstrated a positive relationship between leader–member exchange (LMX) quality and positive outcomes. However, little is known about how the dispositional variable of subordinate political skill impacts LMX–consequence relationships. Thus, this study investigated this interaction in predicting turnover intentions and job satisfaction. Additionally, we employed a relatively unexamined multidimensional measure of LMX, which could then help to establish the generalizability of outcomes related to LMX. We investigated these hypotheses in a sample of 239 working employees, and found support for the moderating role of subordinate political skill.     

Coworker exchange: relationships between coworkers,leader-member exchange,and work attitudes

The study of leadership exchanges is extended by studying both leader-member exchanges (LMXs) and coworker exchanges (CWXs). Data from 110 coworker dyads were used to examine relationships between LMXs and CWXs and between exchange relationships and work attitudes. As predicted, the interaction between 2 coworkers' LMX scores predicted CWX quality for the coworker dyad. Also, after controlling for LMX, greater diversity in a worker's CWX relationships was negatively related to his or her organizational commitment but not job satisfaction. The quality of a worker's CWX relationships, however, did not moderate the relationship between CWX diversity and work attitudes.     

Employee–supervisor political skill congruence and work outcomes: The mediating role of leader–member exchange quality

This study aims to investigate the effect of employee–supervisor political skill congruence on the quality of leader–member exchange (LMX), which in turn influences employees' job satisfaction and turnover intention. For this purpose, two survey studies were conducted. The first study examined the relationship between employee–supervisor political skill congruence and LMX using multi-source data collected from 287 employee–supervisor dyads. The second study examined the indirect effect of congruence in political skill on work outcomes through LMX by using time-lagged multi-source data collected from 142 employee–supervisor dyads. The findings indicate that compared with incongruence, congruence in political skill is associated with higher employee-rated LMX. Moreover, among dyads with congruent political skills, congruence at high levels of political skill is associated with higher employee-rated LMX compared with congruence at low levels of political skill. Moreover, in case of incongruency, low employee–high supervisor political skill combination was related to higher supervisor-rated LMX compared with high employee–low supervisor political skill combination. Lastly, employee–supervisor political skill congruency indirectly influences job satisfaction and turnover intention through employee-rated LMX. This research significantly contributes to the political skill literature by examining potential consequences of employee–supervisor congruence in political skill in the workplace.     

A Predictive Investigation of Reputation as Mediator of the Political‐Skill/Career‐Success Relationship1

Career success is determined by a number of factors, including some combination of specific competencies and a performance record, along with network development, organizational politics, and reputation building. Theory and research suggest that employees' political skill predicts their career success, and that this relationship is mediated by employees' reputation in the workplace. These hypotheses were tested in a predictive study, collecting 2 waves of data from 135 career employees, covering a 1‐year timeframe. Political skill at Time 1 predicted hierarchical position, income, and career satisfaction at Time 2. Furthermore, reputation mediated the relationships between political skill, hierarchical position, and career satisfaction. Contributions, implications, limitations, strengths, and future research directions are discussed.     

Relative Leader–Member Exchange Within Team Contexts: How and when Social Comparison Impacts Individual Effectiveness

A multilevel model was developed to examine how and when a focal individual's leader–member exchange (LMX) relative to the LMXs of coworkers within the team (relative LMX, or RLMX) influences individual in‐role performance, organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), and job satisfaction. Results, based on a sample of 275 leader–member dyads within 35 teams of a beverage company, largely supported the hypotheses. Specifically, using multilevel polynomial regression analyses, the results showed that self‐efficacy partially mediated the relationship between RLMX and in‐role performance and job satisfaction, and fully mediated the relationship between RLMX and OCB. Furthermore, the results demonstrated that team identification attenuated RLMX's direct effect on self‐efficacy, and indirect effects on in‐role performance and OCB and team supportive behavior attenuated RLMX's direct effect on self‐efficacy and indirect effect on in‐role performance.     

Job autonomy and workload as antecedents of workplace bullying: A two‐wave test of Karasek's Job Demand Control Model for targets and perpetrators

The current study aims to test the hypotheses that are central to Karasek's Job Demand Control Model in relation to workplace bullying. Particular contributions are, first, the focus upon both targets and perpetrators of workplace bullying, and second, the two‐wave design with a 6‐month time lag. We assume that (a) workload at Time 1 associates positively with being a target/perpetrator at Time 2, (b) job autonomy at Time 1 associates negatively with being a target/perpetrator at Time 2, and (c) the positive relationship between workload at Time 1 and being a target/perpetrator at Time 2 is stronger under the condition of low (vs. high) job autonomy at Time 1 (i.e., interaction between workload and job autonomy). Moderated hierarchical regression analyses (N= 320) revealed lagged main effects for being a target, and interaction effects for being a perpetrator. In particular, Time 1 workload was positively and Time 1 job autonomy negatively associated with being a target at Time 2. Job autonomy at Time 1 reduced the positive relationship between workload at Time 1 and being a perpetrator at Time 2. Overall, our results suggest that high strain jobs relate to both being a target and to being perpetrator of workplace bullying, yet through different processes: main effects and interactions, respectively.