Construct validity and personality correlates of the Strelau temperament inventory

Strelau's reinterpretation of Pavlov's concept of nervous system properties has gained increasing attention in Western personality research, both with regard to the psychometric properties of the Strelau Temperament Inventory (STI) and with regard to the interrelations between STI and Western personality dimensions. The present study investigated the construct validity of the Strength of Excitation scale by examining its relationship to experimental indices of strength of the nervous system. Secondly, data on the convergence between STI, EPQ, SSS IV, and trait anxiety measures are presented, using German translations of all the questionnaires. The results confirmed the correlation between strength of excitation and a reaction time based measure of strength of the nervous system. A factor analysis on the questionnaire scales identified two factors. Factor I (activity/stimulation seeking) consisted of extroversion, mobility, strength of excitation and the sensation seeking scales whereas Factor II (instability vs control) was composed of anxiety/neuroticism/ psychoticism and strength of excitation/strength of inhibition/social desirability. These findings agree with Eysenck's and Strelau's theoretical predictions regarding the interrelations of Pavlovian properties and Western personality dimensions.     

The Strelau Temperament Inventory-revised (STI-R): Theoretical considerations and scale development

The development of a revised Strelau Temperament Inventory (STI-R) is reported. It is assumed that the STI-R provides a measure of the basic central nervous system (CNS) properties (strength of excitation, strength of inhibition, and mobility of the CNS) as understood by Pavlov. On the basis of a series of studies, the development of the final forms of the revised STI has undergone several steps. The following forms have been elaborated: (1) a 252-item pilot form of the STI-R; (2) a 166-item STI-R with ‘yes’ and ‘no’ answer format; (3) a short form (84 items) of the STI-R (STI-RS) with ‘yes’ and ‘no’ answer format; (4) a 166-item STI-R with a 4-point Likert scale; and (5) an 84-item STI-RS with a 4-point rating scale. The psychometric characteristics of the consecutive versions of the revised STI improved from step to step, and in general these characteristics are judged as being satisfactory. Especially recommended by the authors are versions (4) and (5), which have, among other things, the highest reliability scores. They are regarded as the final forms of the STI-R and STI-RS.     

Pavlov's types of nervous system, Eysenck's typology and the Hippocrates-Galen temperaments: An empirical examination of the asserted correspondence of three temperament typologies

Both Pavlov and Eysenck equate their typologies with the Hippocrates-Galen temperaments. In Eysenck's system, the melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic and sanguine temperaments result from different combinations of the superfactors Extraversion (E) and Neuroticism (N). The Pavlovian types of nervous system (TNS) are based on configurations of the three nervous system properties of strength, mobility, and balance of the nervous processes of excitation and inhibition. The proclaimed identity of the three typologies allowed us to (a) derive and evaluate hypotheses regarding differences between the four Hippocrates-Galen temperaments with respect to strength, mobility, and balance of the nervous processes of excitation and inhibition, (b) deduce and test hypotheses regarding the relationship between the Eysenckian typology and Pavlov's TNS, and (c) derive hypotheses regarding the dimensional relationship between the superfactors E and N and the Pavlovian nervous system properties as measured by the Pavlovian Temperament Survey (PTS; Strelau et al., 1990, European Journal of Personality, 4, 209–235). The hypotheses were tested in three samples comprising 159, 102, and 112 adults, respectively. Most of the results were in line with the predictions. The main discrepancy refers to the finding that the sanguine temperament seems to be as unbalanced as the choleric temperament. However, whereas the low balance of the latter is due to weak inhibitory processes, the low balance of the former is due to unexpectedly strong excitatory processes in the sanguine temperament.     

Mobility,extraversion, and neuroticism

Mobility, a property of Pavlovian higher nervous activity, was measured using an induction task. Negative induction, following presentation of an excitatory stimulus, is an index of mobility of excitation and positive induction, following presentation of an inhibitory stimulus is an index of mobility of inhibition. Mobility scores from 27 male and 37 female first-year psychology students, age 17 to 42 years were related to extraversion and neuroticism derived from Eysenck’s Personality Inventory (Form A). Mobility of excitation and mobility of inhibition were found to be unrelated. Individual differences in the magnitude and latency of induction indicate that individuals can be typed according to low, medium, or high mobility of either nervous process. No relationship was found between neuroticism and mobility, and no relationship was found between extraversion and mobility of excitation. However, a significant negative relationship was found between extraversion and mobility of inhibition, providing a link between Pavlovian properties of the nervous system and Eysenck’s personality dimension of extraversion.     

Sustained attentional and disattentional abilities and arousability: Factor analysis and relationships to hypnotic susceptibility

The neurophysiologically separate dimensions of deeply focused, sustained attention and arousability are shown to be differentially related to hypnotic susceptibility. University undergraduates, 98 men and 112 women, were administered the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility; the Group Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C (SHSS:C); and questionnaires that assessed attentional abilities (Differential Attentional Processes Inventory (DAPI), Tellegen Absorption Scale (TAS)), Extraversion (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire), strength of the nervous system (Strelau Temperament Scale (STS)), augmenting-reducing (Vando Reducer-Augmenter Scale (RAS)), and emotionality (Affect Intensity Measure (AIM)). Women were significantly higher on TAS, DAPI dual attention physical-cognitive scale, and AIM; men were significantly higher on TAS and STI Strength of Excitation Scale. Separate factor analyses for men and women separately yielded fairly similar four-factor solutions. The first major factor, defined by DAPI Moderately Focused Attention and Dual Attention scales, represented moderately sustained attention in a complex environment with limited interference from competing stimuli. The extremely involved and focused attention factor, defined by the TAS and DAPI Extremely Focused Attention Scale, had hypnotic susceptibility loaded more strongly for men than women. The arousability factor was defined by EPQ Extraversion, STI Mobility of Nervous System (MNS) scale, and RAS. The neo-Pavlovian nervous system processes factor was defined by the STI Strength of Excitation and Strength of Inhibition scales; the STI MNS scale also loaded on this factor for men. Only for women were introverts more hypnotizable than extraverts. Results support H. J. Crawford and J. H. Gruzelier's (1992) in E. Fromm and M. Nash (Eds.) Contemporary Perspectives in Hypnosis Research (pp. 227–266) New York: Guildford Press) neurophysiological model of hypnosis that proposes that highly hypnotizable persons have a more efficient fronto-limbic sustained attentional and disattentional system.     

NEO-PAVLOVIAN PROPERTIES OF HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY AND EYSENCK'S PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS

An hierarchical multivariate approach was used to examine the relationships between the neo-Pavlovian properties of higher nervous activity, strength, dynamism, and mobility, as measured by motor reaction-time tasks and Eysenck's personality model as measured by the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. Eighty subjects, 40 of each sex, completed tasks measuring strength, dynamism, and mobility followed by completion of the questionnaire. Standardized composite estimates of the six primary factors extracted from the measures of the three properties and of the 16 primary factors from the questionnaire were subjected to hierarchical factor analyses. Four orthogonal second-order factors were extracted which showed meaningful relationships involving the Pavlovian and Eysenckian constructs.     

A quantitative review of the relations between the “Big 3” higher order personality dimensions and antisocial behavior

In this meta-analytic review, Hans J. Eysenck’s theory of criminality (Eysenck, 1964, Eysenck, 1977) serves as a theoretical framework for examining the relations between higher order personality dimensions and antisocial behavior (ASB). The three higher order dimensions examined are referred to as extraversion/sociability, neuroticism/emotionality, and impulsivity/disinhibition (see Sher & Trull, 1994), and they are likened to Eysenck’s dimensions of extraversion (E), neuroticism (N), and psychoticism (P), respectively (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975) and Tellegen’s dimensions of positive emotionality (PEM), negative emotionality (NEM), and constraint (reversed) (CON), respectively (Tellegen, 1982). Ninety-seven samples, from 52 published and unpublished studies, were reviewed. The results indicated that among the “Big 3” personality dimensions, impulsivity/disinhibition is most strongly related to ASB and extraversion/sociability is least strongly related to ASB. Additional variables, including age and methodological differences, were found to moderate the associations between the personality dimensions and ASB.     

Trends in the psychophysiology of individual differences

Pavlov’s typology of higher nervous activity was the first systematic approach to the psychophysiology of individual differences. Pavlov’s theory has been further developed by Teplov, Nebylitsyn and their pupils in the Institute of Psychology in Moscow. In particular, Nebylitsyn has delineated a new property of the nervous system and has shown that it is different from strength of nervous system. In the Western research context we can compare the relationship between these two parameters to that between arousal and conditioning level. Eysenck’s theory of the physiological bases of extraversion/introversion is discussed in relation to Nebylitsyn ’s theses and Gray’s conception of arousability. Finally, it is suggested that future work in the psychophysiology of individual differences should stress the study of the ontogenetic development of the physiological variables.     

National differences in personality: India and England

This study reports comparisons between results on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) obtained from 558 male and 636 female Indian Ss; the comparison group of the original standardized English Sample (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1975). Factor analysis of item correlations showed close correspondence between the factors extracted in the two samples, with indices of factor comparisons being well in excess of 0.97. The reliabilities in the Indian sample were only marginally lower than in the original English standardization group. Some items from the original EPQ did not load on the hypothesized factors; they were substituted by the extra items contained in the 101-item version of the EPQ used in India. The Indian data showed no sex differences with respect to extraversion; females were found to score higher on the Neuroticism and also slightly higher on the Lie scale than the males. The Lie scores for both males and females being quite high suggests a consistent trait of conformity in operation. It was concluded that the organization of personality in India is sufficiently similar to that in England to make national comparisons feasible since identical dimensions underlie the personalities of Indian and English Ss.     

Properties of the diffuse thalamocortical system and human personality: A direct test of Pavlovian/Eysenckian theory

Advances in the last few decades demonstrate the relevance of Pavlov's classification of behavioural types with respect to human individual differences and suggest that the hypothetical excitatory and inhibitory processes which he associated with these differences correspond to cortical and thalamic neuron populations of the diffuse thalamocortical system (DTS). Since the transmission properties or time constants of these DTS elements would correspond to the Pavlovian property of ‘strength’, and since they can be evaluated in human subjects (Robinson, 1981), it is possible to formulate hypotheses based on the fundamental principles of strength and balance which Pavlov employed to provide a causal explanation for temperamental types. A major finding is that covariation of the time constants equated with strength correlates 0.95 with covariation of extraversion and stability scores on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ). This result provides unequivocal support for the relationship between human individual differences and properties of the nervous system postulated by Pavlov and it also confirms the neurophysiological underpinning of Eysenck's influential theory of human personality. In addition, the relationship between Pavlovian and Eysenckian concepts is clarified and EEG parameters are meaningfully related to personality differences.     

Personality and social skill differences between adults with and without siblings.

Differences in personality and social skills of 146 adults with 1 or more siblings and 51 adults without siblings were investigated to examine the importance of family structure for individual personality development. Participants completed the Social Skills Inventory (SSI; R. E. Riggio, 1989), which measures social and emotional sensitivity, expressivity, and control, and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ; H. J. Eysenck & S. B. G. Eysenck, 1975), which measures the personality factors of Extraversion-Introversion, Neuroticism-Stability, and Psychoticism. Results revealed only a marginal difference between individuals with and without siblings in Neuroticism, and no differences in various social skills or overall social competence. Possible explanations for the lack of differences in social skills between adults with and without siblings are discussed.     

Pursuing and Distancing,and Related Traits: A Cross-Cultural Assessment

We previously showed (Bernstein, Santelli, Alter-Reid, & Androsiglio, 1985) pursuing and distancing to be semi-independent constructs sharing variance with the Rathus Assertiveness Scale (Rathus, 1973), the Zuckerman Sensation-Seeking Scale, Form V (Zuckerman, Eysenck, & Eysenck, 1978), the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1968) extraversion score, and the Bem Sex Role Inventory (Bem, 1974). This study extends our findings by administering these scales and Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (Rotter, 1966) to a sample of 203 Indians and 161 Thais (all were English speaking and primarily students at universities where instruction is in English). Our original findings were supported. We also found that locus of control and the EPI neuroticism score are significantly related (p < .05) to pursuing and distancing in our Eastern samples. In general, our Eastern subjects pursued less and distanced more (p < .05). Although unrelated to pursuing or distancing, in general, our Eastern subjects were more androgynous (p < .001) than our American sample.     

The Strelau Temperament Inventory—Revised (STI-R): Validity studies

This study examines the construct validity of the revised version of the Strelau Temperament Inventory (STI-R) and the short scale (STI-RS), which were introduced by Strelau, Angleitner, Bantelmann and Ruch (1990). Hypotheses about the relationship between the content scales of the STI-R, viz. Strength of Excitation (SE), Strength of Inhibition (SI), and Mobility (MO) of CNS properties, and (a) other personality/temperament dimensions referring to the level of arousal, (b) selected temperament inventories, and (c) selected personality scales are derived and tested in a total of four samples with altogether 420 Ss. The inventories investigated include, among others, the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire—Revised (EPQ-R), Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS), the I.7 Impulsiveness Questionnaire (I.7), the Affect-Intensity-Measure (AIM), the EASI, the Structure of Temperament Questionnaire (STQ), and the Revised Dimensions of Temperament Survey (DOTS-R). In general, the hypotheses regarding the place of the STI-R in the temperament and personality domain were confirmed. A factor analysis of the STI-R, EASI, and DOTS-R yielded five factors: Emotional Stability, Rhythmicity, Activity/Tempo, Sociability, and Impulsivity versus Impulse Control.     

Social dissimulation,perceived competence and personality

The Junior Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (JEPQ) (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1975) was completed by 129 boys (mean age 10 yr 10 months: SD = 4 months) and 119 girls (mean age 10 yr 11 months; SD = 3 months) from Belfast. Belfast boys' and girls' scores were significantly (P < 0.001) higher than the English standardisation data on psychoticism and extraversion, but their mean scores for neuroticism and the lie scale were remarkably similar. Belfast boys display significantly different intercorrelations in comparison with (i) the standardisation data—neuroticism/psychoticism (P < 0.01) and lie scale/neuroticism (P < 0.05)—and (ii) Belfast girls—neuroticism/psychoticism (P < 0.05). Psychoticism appears to play a highly salient role in Belfast boys' self-construals. Most of these pupils (n = 189) also completed the Perceived Competence Scale for Children (PCSC) (Harter, 1982). The PCSC minimises social dissimulation: the highest positive correlation with the lie scale being (r = 0.1). Correlations with the domains of the PCSC display the saliency of extraversion for girls' self-perceived physical competence and general competence, and for boys' self-perceived social competence, and the saliency of neuroticism for girls' self-perceived social competence.     

Development of sleep during monotonous stimulation as related to individual differences

This study was designed to examine whether the sleep-promoting effect of monotonous stimulation depends on individual differences in strength of the nervous system, as was suggested by Pavlov. Sixty male subjects were divided into three groups, depending on their score on the “strength of excitation” scale of the Strelau Temperament Inventory. Within each group, subjects were randomly assigned to be exposed to either a) a sequence of tones or b) “no tones” (i.e., a quiet room). Dependent variables were latencies to Sleep Stage 1 (SOL 1) and Sleep Stage 2 (SOL 2). The main effects of stimulation and strength of the nervous system were not statistically significant. However, there was a significant interaction between stimulation and strength for both dependent variables. “Weak” subjects tended to fall asleep more rapidly during monotonous stimulation, whereas the reverse was true of “strong” subjects. The results suggest that individual differences might play an important role in the development of sleep during monotonous stimulation.     

Personality factors in the taking of criminal risks

The present study investigated the relationship between personality and Expectancy of Gain (Egn) and Likelihood of Action (L/A) in criminal situations. The latter variables were assessed by means of an inventory of hypothetical criminal-risk situations. Groups of offenders and non-offenders were tested; personality measures included the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire and Zuckerman's Sensation-Seeking Scale. Theoretical reasons for expecting these dimensions to be related to criminal risk-taking are presented. A clear relationship was found between P and Egn, high scorers viewing situations as less risky. In contrast, N was associated with increased risk perception. The results for L/A were less clear, although generally in the predicted direction. SS was unrelated to either risk variable.     

Simple visual reaction time,personality and strength of the nervous system: A signal-detection theory approach

Eysenck (1967) has reviewed evidence which suggests that introverts have a higher level of arousal than extraverts. Moreover, Gray (1967) has proposed that introverts have weak nervous systems, in the Russian terminology. Studies of simple reaction time such as that of Mangan and Farmer (1967) have posed problems for these views, but it is suggested that this may have been due to criterion differences between introverts and extraverts. In the present study a simple visual reaction-time task and a signal-detection task were conducted side by side. No significant differences between introverts and extraverts were found in measures of strength derived from the former, or measures of criterion derived from the latter. However, high N Ss were found to have a significantly lower value for Nebylitsyn's index of the slope of the reaction time/stimulus intensity function, thus supporting the view that high N Ss have relatively weak nervous systems.     

Standing's power function in long-term memory

Summary Standing (1973) and Murray (1975) have both found that the number of items retrieved from long-term memory is a power function of the number of items presented. The present research reports three further experiments designed to validate this power function: the law was found to be upheld in paired associates recognition (for four levels of meaningfulness); for free recall (with or without retrieval cues at presentation and/or recall); and for incidental and intentional free recall and recognition. Some data of Roberts (1972) were also found to be fitted by a power function. The discussion deals with power functions as compared with linear functions and also with the relationships between slopes and intercepts of power functions.This research was supported by National Research Council of Canada Grant AO-126 to D.J. Murray. W.E. Hockley served as research assistant for Experiments 1 and 2; Experiment 3 was an Honours Thesis project carried out by Carol Pye.     

The Spiritual Transcendence Index: An Item Response Theory Analysis

ABSTRACT

In an attempt to measure understudied dimensions of spirituality, recent efforts have focused on the transcendent dimension of spirituality. The Spiritual Transcendence Index (STI) was developed to assess a perceived experience of the sacred that affects one’s ability to transcend life’s difficulties. The main focus of the current study was to investigate the psychometric properties of the STI by utilizing the microscopic item-level examination tools unique in item response theory (IRT), as well as its scale-level exploration devices for psychometric properties of an assessment measure. IRT analyses were conducted to investigate the STI’s psychometric properties across samples (N = 712) including how well the measure assesses the latent construct, spiritual transcendence, from the low to high range of the construct. The findings confirm that the 8-item index is a single factor that assesses the latent construct, spiritual transcendence. Instead of the original 6-category version, these findings support a 4-category response version; the 3 categories of disagreement may be collapsed into a single category. These findings not only inform the refinement of the STI but also highlight an important psychometric approach for the refinement of spirituality/religiousness measures, especially those with ceiling effects.     

New perspectives in temperament/personality research: The “Behavioral” model of the Warsaw group

This paper reviews the theory and research of the Warsaw school of differential psychophysiology, which has modified and extended the typologic model constructed by Teplov and Nebylitsyn. While Soviet theory still favors a relatively inflexible structure of nervous system properties as the biologic basis of individual differences in personality, Strelau and colleagues, in line with the action/activity model of Vygotsky and Tomaszewski, begin with the premise that for every individual there is a specific, genetically determined optimal level of arousal, a necessary background for fullest emotional and intellectual development. The person strives to create this optimal climate through an active process of stimulation control, achieved primarily through enhancement or dampening of reactivity—which describes innate responsivity in the reacting systems to both sensory and emotional stimuli—through various hormonal ‘tuning’ mechanisms and through “appropriate” activity, reflected in different cognitive styles and preference for certain work conditions. Such activities aim to ensure comfortable physical and psychologic environments, in which the individual can avoid conflict and stress. The system regulating and integrating such control mechanisms is the core of personality. Investigations of the Warsaw group on relationships between reactivity and different forms of stimulation seeking/control—risk-taking, work style preferences, cognitive style, defense mechanisms, for example—and between reactivity and tolerance of stress and conflict and their speculations about the neurophysiologic and endocrinologic mechanisms of stimulation control are described, as are a number of questionnaires developed by this group to measure reactivity, the temporal parameters of response, and stimulation-seeking in a variety of occupational and social contexts.