Experimental analysis of academic performance in a classroom setting

We evaluated the effects of specific stimulus prompts on accuracy of academic performance with adolescents who displayed academic problems in a public special education classroom. We conducted analyses of instructional strategies within a multielement design with two students who had mild disabilities. Differential effects of the strategies on reading comprehension were not apparent on demand (independent-level) tasks but were apparent on high-demand (instructional-level) tasks. These results suggested that the application of experimental analysis methodologies to instructional variables may facilitate the identification of stimulus prompts associated with accurate academic performance.     

Personality and sexual risk taking: a quantitative review

Findings from a quantitative review of the empirical research literature on normal personality and sexual risk taking are reported. The review focuses on domains identified in major models of normal personality representing the psychobiological and taxonomic perspectives. Focal sexual risk-taking behaviors were number of partners, unprotected sex, and high-risk sexual encounters (e.g., sex with a stranger). A comprehensive search produced 53 studies relevant to the review. A striking feature of the results is the paucity of research on domains of normal personality and sexual risk taking for all domains other than sensation seeking, which accounted for 64% of the effect sizes. The preponderance of studies (81%) took the psychobiological perspective and were published since 1990 (75%). Among the substantive findings were effects for sensation seeking, impulsivity, and agreeableness on all sexual risk-taking behaviors considered. Additionally, there were effects on specific behaviors for neuroticism and conscientiousness. The implications of these findings for future research on normal personality and sexual risk taking are discussed.     

An instructional package to teach communication behaviors in a classroom setting

An instructional package consisting of modeling, written and behavioral rehearsal, and feedback was used to teach communication behaviors (simple sentence responses, information responses, and eye contact) to 17 emotionally handicapped students, ages ranging between 11 and 17 years. A multiple baseline analysis indicated that the communication behaviors targeted for training increased significantly following implementation of the instructional package. These behaviors also generalized across settings and nontrained questions and were maintained across time. Finally, the average amount of training time required for each subject was 2 hours, indicating that the use of the instructional package in a classroom setting was economical. These results show that communication behaviors can be delivered effectively and economically in a classroom setting.     

Comments on a new risk taking model

The decision model of Slovic and Lichtenstein (1968) was tested. This model states that people pay more attention to some risk dimensions than to others. A design is employed which results in individual weights, attached to each of four risk dimensions. The advantage of this model over the EV-model, appeared in this study to be greater in ‘skill’- than in ‘chance’-context. Other conclusions are: (a) Situational effects on responses are very important and seem to be more stable than individual preferences; (b) Focusing on only one dimension does not seem to depend on information-processing capacity; (c) There seems to be some generality in average risk level.     

Adaptive learning and risk taking

Humans and animals learn from experience by reducing the probability of sampling alternatives with poor past outcomes. Using simulations, J. G. March (1996) illustrated how such adaptive sampling could lead to risk-averse as well as risk-seeking behavior. In this article, the author develops a formal theory of how adaptive sampling influences risk taking. He shows that a risk-neutral decision maker may learn to prefer a sure thing to an uncertain alternative with identical expected value and a symmetric distribution, even if the decision maker follows an optimal policy of learning. If the distribution of the uncertain alternative is negatively skewed, risk-seeking behavior can emerge. Consistent with recent experiments, the model implies that information about foregone payoffs increases risk taking.     

Individual differences in risk perception versus risk taking: handedness and interhemispheric interaction

Research indicates that right-hemisphere mechanisms are specifically sensitive to and averse to risk. Research also indicates that mixed degree of handedness is associated with increased access to right hemisphere processing. Accordingly, it was predicted that mixed-handers would exhibit greater risk aversion. Participants were presented with various risky activities and were asked to rate (i) the perceived risk, (ii) the perceived benefit, and (iii) their likelihood to engage in each activity. No handedness differences were found for any of these ratings. Regression analyses, however, indicated that the likelihood to engage in risky activities was predicted primarily by the perceived risks in mixed-handers and by the perceived benefits in strong-handers.     

Sexual risk taking in adolescence: the role of self-regulation and attraction to risk

Precursors of adolescent sexual risk taking were examined in a multiethnic sample consisting of 443 children (51% girls) of National Longitudinal Survey of Youth participants. Respondents were 12-13 years old in 1994 and 16-17 in 1998. Controlling for demographic and contextual factors, self-regulation--but not risk proneness--was significantly (modestly) associated with overall sexual risk taking 4 years later. Analyses of individual sexual behaviors indicated that self-regulation may affect choices made after becoming sexually active (e.g., number of partners) rather than the initiation of sexual activity. Measures of parent and peer influence had independent effects on sexual risk taking but did not moderate the effects of self-regulation and risk proneness. Findings add to the growing literature on implications of self-regulation for individual development.     

Reliability of the 5-min psychomotor vigilance task in a primary school classroom setting

This study evaluated the reliability of the 5-min psychomotor vigilance task (PVT) in a single-sex Australian primary school. Seventy-five male students (mean age 5 11.82 years, SD = 1.12) completed two 5-min PVTs using a Palm personal digital assistant (PDA) in (1) an isolated setting and (2) a classroom setting. Of this group of students, a subsample of 37 students completed a test-retest reliability trial within the classroom setting. Using a mixed-model analysis, there was no significant difference in the mean response time (RT) or number of lapses (RTs ≥ 500 msec) between the isolated and the classroom setting. There was, however, an order effect for the number of lapses in the isolated setting, with the number of lapses being greater if the isolated test was conducted second. Test-retest intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) in the classroom setting indicated moderate to high reliability (mean RT = .84, lapses = .59). Bland-Altman analysis showed no systematic difference between the two settings. Findings suggest that the 5-min PDA PVT is a reliable measure of sustained attention in the classroom setting in this sample of primary-aged schoolchildren. The results provide further evidence for the versatility of this measuring device for larger interventions outside the laboratory.     

Explaining contradictory relations between risk perception and risk taking

Different studies have documented opposite relations between perceived risk and behavior. The present study tested a theoretical explanation that reconciles these conflicting results. Adolescents (N= 596) completed alternative measures of risk perception that differed in cue specificity and response format. As predicted by fuzzy-trace theory, measures that emphasized verbatim retrieval and quantitative processing produced positive correlations between perceived risk and risky behavior; risk perceptions reflected the extent to which adolescents engaged in risky behavior. In contrast, measures that assessed global, gist-based judgments of risk produced negative correlations; higher risk perceptions were associated with less risk taking, a protective rather than reflective relation. Endorsement of simple values and principles provided the greatest protection against risk taking. Results support a dual-processes interpretation of the relation between risk perception and risk taking according to which observed relations depend on whether the cues in questions trigger verbatim or gist processing.     

Perceiving classroom aggression: The influence of setting,intervention style and group perceptions

Background. Violence and aggression in the classroom are often cited as a major concern within the teaching community. Teachers' perceptions of the appropriateness of intervention behaviours during aggressive incidents, however, are less often examined ( Meyer, Astor, & Behre, 2002 ), nor how they compare to the perceptions of training teachers ( John, 2002 ). Aims. This paper examines differences in the perceptions of practising and training teachers after exposure to an account of a violent incident where a school teacher is assaulted. The paper also investigates the relative and combined influence of classroom condition and teacher intervention on perceptions of classroom violence. Sample(s). Participants included 48 practising teachers, and 48 students undertaking a Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) also took part in the study. Methods. The study utilized a 2 × 2×2 between‐subjects factorial design, manipulating the impact of classroom condition, teacher intervention, and observer status on evaluations of the teacher, assailant and school following an incident of violence against the teacher. Results. Classroom environment, teacher intervention, and observer status influenced evaluations of the teacher and school, but not the assailant. Conclusions. Implications of these findings and the applied importance of these results are discussed in relation to school policy, teacher training, and classroom maintenance.     

Sex differences in risk taking and its attribution

In the original Kogan-Wallach Choice Dilemmas Questionnaire (CDQ), an oftused measure of risk-taking disposition, the central character in the majority of items is male. For this study, a revised 10-item CDQ was constructed with content appropriate for both sexes. Two forms were employed, identical in all respects except for the use of a male or female name to identify the central protagonist in each CDQ item. When the two forms were administered to male and female undergraduates, the female form elicited somewhat higher levels of risk taking. This effect was especially pronounced in the male subjects. When asked to specify how their peers would respond to each of the CDQ items, subjects attributed greater caution to female than to male peers relative to their own preferred risk level. The outcomes suggest that subjects (especially males) find highly achieving women in the CDQ items more exceptional than their male counterparts, and hence able to tolerate more risk. In striking contrast, subjects' female peers are considered a rather cautious lot.The present research was formulated in the course of discussions with Marvin Frankel. The authors are enormously grateful for his help and would also like to thank Kathleen Connor and Joel Kostin for their aid in statistical and computer analyses. An earlier version of of this article was presented as a paper at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Chicago, 1975. The article was completed during the period (1976–1977) that the senior author was a Visiting Scholar in the Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley.     

Punishment sensitivity and risk taking in depressed mood

Motivation and Emotion - Individuals with high levels of depressive symptoms find rewards to be less reinforcing and punishment more aversive, which may lead them to avoid risk taking. To examine...     

Sensation seeking and risk taking in mortality salience

This study aimed to examine responses of sensation seekers concerning their tendency to take risks in driving in mortality salience. Ss completed the Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking scale (SSS). Two weeks later Ss were divided into two groups; the experimental group, which was exposed to a terrifying video film dealing with consequences of risky driving and a control group with a nature video film. After watching the films, each participant was asked to complete a risk-taking inventory (RT), which referred to the extent of risk s/he would take while driving. High sensation seekers reported more risk taking in driving than sensation avoiders. Furthermore, a significant interaction was found between Mortality Salience and Sensation Seeking regarding risky driving, especially speeding. The implications of these findings on the well-established educational approaches based on terror are presented in the discussion.     

The effectiveness of collaborative story building and telling in facilitating group cohesion in a college classroom setting

This study tested the notion that the construction and telling of a collaborative group story would facilitate the development of group cohesion within the context of an actual classroom setting over the duration of the course. Participants were 125 students in 8 classes (4 experimental, 4 control) of a group psychotherapy course that focused on the principles and techniques of cognitive behavior therapy in conjunction with psychodrama techniques. Results showed significantly higher cohesion scores in the experimental condition compared to the control condition, suggesting that collaborative story building and telling is a viable strategy for improving group cohesion.     

Individual differences and risk taking in rock climbing

ObjectivesThe primary objective of the study was to challenge the notion that risk taking populations are homogenous, and that risk taking in sport necessarily reflects the expression of trait sensation seeking. A secondary objective was to examine the potential role of additional individual differences, such as self-efficacy and impulsivity, which have traditionally received limited attention.DesignQuantitative cross-sectional study.MethodsOne hundred and sixteen active rock climbers completed the Impulsive-Sensation Seeking Scale, a domain-specific self-efficacy scale, and behavioral measures of ability, experience and risk taking in rock climbing.ResultsThose high in self-efficacy and male climbers were likely to take greater risks; small associations with age, sensation seeking and impulsivity were also observed, though these were not in the hypothesized direction and failed to predict unique variance in regression analyses.ConclusionsTo challenge themselves, rock climbers may take calculated additional risks when they feel confident in their ability to manage those risks. Researchers should not assume homogeneity within risk taking populations, or that people take risks in all domains due to elevated sensation seeking needs.     

Pricing risk and ambiguity: the effect of perspective taking

In the valuation of uncertain prospects, a difference is often observed between selling and buying perspectives. This paper distinguishes between risk (known probabilities) and ambiguity (unknown probabilities) in decisions under uncertainty and shows that the valuation disparity increases under ambiguity compared to risk. It is found that both the comparative versus noncomparative evaluation of risky and ambiguous prospects and the uniqueness of the valuation perspective (either seller or buyer) moderate this increase in the disparity under ambiguity. The finding is consistent with recent theoretical accounts of pricing under uncertainty. We discuss implications for market behaviour and for the ambiguity paradigm as a research tool.     

Pricing risk and ambiguity: The effect of perspective taking

In the valuation of uncertain prospects, a difference is often observed between selling and buying perspectives. This paper distinguishes between risk (known probabilities) and ambiguity (unknown probabilities) in decisions under uncertainty and shows that the valuation disparity increases under ambiguity compared to risk. It is found that both the comparative versus noncomparative evaluation of risky and ambiguous prospects and the uniqueness of the valuation perspective (either seller or buyer) moderate this increase in the disparity under ambiguity. The finding is consistent with recent theoretical accounts of pricing under uncertainty. We discuss implications for market behaviour and for the ambiguity paradigm as a research tool.     

Everyday risk taking as a function of regulatory focus

Uncertainty is an inherent aspect of everyday life. However, faced with uncertainty, some individuals take risks more eagerly than others. Regulatory focus theory may explain such differences because risky behavior may arise naturally from the eagerness of promotion focused individuals, while safe behavior may arise naturally from the vigilance of prevention focused individuals. A highly relevant real-life context for studying risk is mobility, as engaging in traffic inherently carries uncertainty about negative outcomes. We present two studies showing a direct link between regulatory focus and risky behavior going beyond traditional laboratory approaches. In both naturalistic speeding behavior (Study 1) and simulated risk taking (Study 2) promotion focus was positively, and prevention focus was negatively related to actual risky behavior.