Physiologic and motor conditioning and generalization in children with minimal brain dysfunction

Twenty-six children diagnosed as having minimal brain dysfunctions (MBD) were compared with 26 controls in a conditinoing and generalization procedure. Skin resistance, heart rate, and muscle action potentials were monitored throughout. Success involved learning which of two tones signalled the accessibility of a penny. Whereas 92 per cent of controls reached the criterion of five successive correct responses, only 62 per cent of MBD’s did. Further, a third of the MBD’s were so maladaptive as to force procedural variations, while only a few minor irregularities occurred with the controls. Quality of performance was related to age, intelligence, and ability to discriminate and remember tones. Controls were more physiologically reactive than MBD’s, especially in skin resistance. Physiologic differentiation of the two tones was significant in both groups of children and appeared concurrently with motor differentiation. The only evidence of physiologic generalization was in the SR data of controls. The possibility that defective arousal structures, or defective coupling of arousal structures and other perceptual and motor structures, could account for the decreased physiologic reactivity, short attention spans, and poor concentration ofsome MBD’s is discussed. This research, in conformity with other laboratory studies of the brain, indicates that motivational as well as cognitive defects may be organically based.     

Some neuropsychological and psychological parameters in children with minimal brain dysfunction: a transcultural comparison

Performances of groups of second grade elementary school boys with Minimal Brain Dysfunction (ns = 34) and matched with normal boys (ns = 30) were studied using mostly psychometric criteria in Prague, Czechoslovakia and Skopje, Macedonia. Boys with brain dysfunctions scored more poorly than normal ones at both places, but normal boys from both cultures did not differ. Information-processing capability (derived from Wechsler scale) was lower and its rank among disordered features higher among Skopje boys, probably because organized care for minimal brain dysfunctioning children was relatively lower.     

Perceptual-motor coordination and style in healthy boys and those with minimal brain dysfunction.

Differences in visual-motor tracking by 8- to 9-yr.-old boys diagnosed with Minimal Brain Dysfunction or healthy have been analyzed. The subject's task was to use two computer keys to control a cursor line within a target which moved horizontally in two directions over the display. Target size and speed were the experimental variables. Off-target incidences and durations were measured and evaluated. The latter were longer and the former were more frequent on small targets for boys with brain dysfunction than for healthy boys. The two measures correlated negatively in most situations. The perceptual-motor style expressed by means of the distribution of coincidences of the two measures being over or under a criterion set equal to the corresponding averages of the healthy boys was different in the two groups. Brain-damaged boys were characterized mostly by the combination of high incidence of low duration misses for small and fast targets and by high incidence of high duration misses for large and slow targets, whereas most healthy boys showed a few misses of low duration for large and slow targets and few misses of high duration for small and fast targets.     

Pupillary changes during recall in children

Seven children aged 7–9 years were auditorily presented five-digit numbers for retention intervals of 0 and 10 sec. Pupil size was recorded during stimulus presentation, retention interval, and recall of items. Findings indicate that pupil dilation occurs during encoding and retrieval of stimulus items with pupillary constriction occurring during retention of the items. The pupillary change functions obtained with children were found to be very similar to those obtained with older subjects.     

Heart rate and visual evoked potentials during figuring arithmetic problems in boys acquired in early childhood with minimal brain damage

Changes of the pattern reversal EP and heart rate (HR) during calculating were studied on 32 boys with minimal brain damage and a control group (n 27) matched in age, sex and intelligence. The introduction of a reference period and repetition of the calculation period should improve the value of all results and should give simultaneously a first insight in the course of the parameters investigated, during mental loading. Both groups reached the same results in calculating, yet only the brain damaged boys simultaneously showed significant longer latencies of the EP. This result was interpreted as an effect of the higher loading of the damaged subjects. The task-depended increase of the HR was significant in both groups. The HR-level was getting lower with the increasing number of brain damage criteria. The results of intercorrelation between in physiologic parameters and datas of subjective feeling and results of calculating was negative in all cases. These findings were interpreted on the basis of several difficulties to find out clear cut patterns of reaction for different clinical groups.     

Neurocognitive dysfunction in children with sleep disorders

It is well known that adults with sleep disturbances frequently exhibit a wide range of neurocognitive decrements, and that these deficits are potentially reversible with effective treatment. However, the consequences of respiratory sleep disturbances on neurocognitive function in children have only recently been evaluated, and suggest a strong causal association between the episodic hypoxia and sleep fragmentation that characterize the disease and the emergence of reduced memory, attention and intelligence as well as a link to problematic and hyperactive behaviours and mood disturbances. This article takes a critical look at the current literature on these issues, reviews the major findings and discusses such findings in conjunction with those derived from pertinent animal models.     

Mental load,heart rate and heart rate variability

Summary Several investigators have shown that diminished sinus arrhythmia can be seen as an indication of increased mental load. The present experiment deals with the influence of different levels of mental load, operationalized as the number of binary choices per minute, on the regularity of the heart rate. Also we investigated the influence of four different rest conditions on the regularity of the heart rate.The results show that sinus arrhythmia scores differentiate significantly between several levels of mental load, but heart frequency appeared to be an even better indicator.No significant differences were found between the four rest conditions. Stability over three subsequent measurement sessions was satisfactory, and reliability within the measurement periods was very high.

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Zusammenfassung Mehrere Forscher haben gezeigt, daß abnehmende Sinusarrhythmie betrachtet werden kann als ein Indikator zunehmender mentaler Belastung.In der vorliegenden Untersuchung handelt es sich um den Einfluß verschiedener Niveaus der mentalen Belastung, operationalisiert als die Zahl der binären Wahlen pro Minute, auf die Regelmäßigkeit der Herzfrequenz.Außerdem untersuchten wir den Einfluß vier verschiedener Ruhezustände auf die Regelmäßigkeit der Herzfrequenz.Die Ergebnisse zeigen, daß auf Grund Sinusarrhythmiedaten differenziert werden kann zwischen verschiedenen Niveaus mentaler Belastung, aber die Herzfrequenz erweist sich sogar als ein besserer Indikator.Man stellte keine signifikanten Unterschiede zwischen den vier verschiedenen Ruhezuständen fest.Die Stabilität während drei verschiedener Meßperioden war befriedigend, und die Zuverlässigkeit der Messungen (reliability) innerhalb der Meßperioden war sehr groß.

     

Prediction and control as determinants of behavioural uncertainty: Effects on task performance and heart rate reactivity

Control or control-belief is often viewed as being directly instrumental in facilitating coping mechanisms in aversive situations, and yet the empirical evidence for the beneficial effects of control is inconclusive. In this study we investigated the role of predictability in determining the effects of perceived control during an aversive reaction time task. Fifty-six subjects were allocated to one of four groups; predictable-control, predictable-no control, unpredictable-control, unpredictable-no control. In the predictable conditions, subjects could temporally predict the occurrence of an aversive noise. In the perceived control conditions, duration of the aversive tone was contingent on subject’s performance. All subjects were matched in terms of the nature of the task and in the number and time of receipt of both the warning signal and noise. Heart rate reactivity and two performance parameters were measured, reaction time and performance increase. Both predictability and control-belief led to a reduction in heart rate reactivity, although they appeared to function independently and at different points in the sequence of events. That is, predictability or perceived control was sufficient to mitigate the effects, of an aversive situation. Neither perception of control or predictability led to better task performance. These results are discussed in terms of behavioural uncertainty explanations.     

Prediction and control as determinants of behavioural uncertainty: effects on task performance and heart rate reactivity.

Control or control-belief is often viewed as being directly instrumental in facilitating coping mechanisms in aversive situations, and yet the empirical evidence for the beneficial effects of control is inconclusive. In this study we investigated the role of predictability in determining the effects of perceived control during an aversive reaction time task. Fifty-six subjects were allocated to one of four groups; predictable-control, predictable-no control, unpredictable-control, unpredictable-no control. In the predictable conditions, subjects could temporally predict the occurrence of an aversive noise. In the perceived control conditions, duration of the aversive tone was contingent on subject's performance. All subjects were matched in terms of the nature of the task and in the number and time of receipt of both the warning signal and noise. Heart rate reactivity and two performance parameters were measured, reaction time and performance increase. Both predictability and control-belief led to a reduction in heart rate reactivity, although they appeared to function independently and at different points in the sequence of events. That is, predictability or perceived control was sufficient to mitigate the effects of an aversive situation. Neither perception of control or predictability led to better task performance. These results are discussed in terms of behavioural uncertainty explanations.     

Emotional reactivity and cognitive regulation in anxious children

Recent models of anxiety disorders emphasize abnormalities in emotional reactivity and regulation. However, the empirical basis for this view is limited, particularly in children and adolescents. The present study examined whether anxious children suffer both negative emotional hyper-reactivity and deficits in cognitive emotion regulation. Participants were 49 children aged 10-17 with generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety, or separation anxiety disorder as their primary diagnosis, as well as 42 age- and gender-matched non-anxious controls. After completing a diagnostic interview and self-report questionnaires, participants were presented with pictures of threatening scenes with the instructions either to simply view them or to use reappraisal, a cognitive emotion regulation strategy, to decrease their negative emotional response. Emotion ratings, content analysis of reappraisal responses, and reports of everyday use of reappraisal were used to assess negative emotional reactivity, reappraisal ability, efficacy and frequency. Relative to controls, children with anxiety disorders (1) experienced greater negative emotional responses to the images, (2) were less successful at applying reappraisals, but (3) showed intact ability to reduce their negative emotions following reappraisal. They also (4) reported less frequent use of reappraisal in everyday life. Implications for the assessment and treatment of childhood anxiety disorders are discussed.     

Heart rate reactivity in attention deficit disorder subgroups

Beat-to-beat heart rate (HR) was analyzed for 9 contiguous seconds in a warned reaction time (RT) paradigm. Imperative stimuli were tones of three intensity levels (55, 78, and 100 db); a visual warning signal occurred 5 sec before tone onset. Baseline and reward conditions were run. Normal controls were contrasted with three Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) subgroups: ADD-only, ADD with hyperactivity (ADDH), ADD with hyperactivity and aggression (ADDHA). The ADD subgroups were predicted to show less deceleration in HR because of their problem sustaining readiness to respond. Significant sex x group differences in HR levels and change scores were found. Overall, girls had higher HR levels than boys and the ADD-only group (boys and girls) had lower HRs than the other ADD groups. But, the ADD-only boys had more marked deceleration to the warning signal and acceleration to the tones than the other ADD boys, whereas the ADD-only girls were no more reactive than the ADDH and ADDHA girls. Control girls had the highest HR levels and were the most reactive to stimuli. Control boys and ADD-only boys had similar HR levels and reaction patterns. ADD-only girls appear to be underaroused, whereas ADD-only boys do not. Results suggest that cardiac measures can provide external validation of disruptive and nondisruptive ADD subtypes.     

Neuropsychological dysfunction in asthmatic children

Neuropsychological dysfunction associated with pediatric asthma is reviewed. Significant methodological confounds associated with clinical research, including problems with the objective measure of asthma, are prevalent in many studies. Most evidence does not support the belief that asthma alone results in homogeneous neuropsychological compromise. Studies of adverse reactions to asthma medications indicate medication-specific effects including slight improvements in some aspects of neuropsychological functioning, such as attention, and deficiencies in other aspects of neuropsychological functioning, such as memory. The acute neuropsychological effects of various medication regimens appears to be reversible with cessation of the asthma medication under suspicion, although no data yet exist regarding the long-term effects of therapeutic dosages of asthma medications upon a developing nervous system. The hypothetical effects of asthma on school performance have been related to non-neuropsychological variables such as a child's socioeconomic status, though there is also evidence suggesting that poorly controlled asthma is related to learning problems. Implications for pediatric neuropsychologists are discussed.     

Attention and memory in children with brain tumors.

The Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test was utilized to examine attention, learning, and memory abilities in 42 children with cerebellar (N = 18) and third ventricle tumors (N = 24). Children with cerebellar tumors exhibited significant auditory attentional impairments and displayed adequate encoding and retrieval across subsequent learning and memory trials. In contrast, children with third ventricle tumors exhibited average auditory attentional abilities, but they displayed mild encoding deficits across trials 2-5. Furthermore, the third ventricle group's compromised performance on the delayed recall trial and average performance on the delayed recognition trial is suggestive of underlying retrieval deficits.     

Emotional reactivity and regulation in preschool-age children who stutter

Purpose.

This study experimentally investigated behavioral correlates of emotional reactivity and emotion regulation and their relation to speech (dis)fluency in preschool-age children who do (CWS) and do not (CWNS) stutter during emotion-eliciting conditions.

Method.

Participants (18 CWS, 14 boys; 18 CWNS, 14 boys) completed two experimental tasks (1) a neutral (“apples and leaves in a transparent box,” ALTB) and (2) a frustrating (“attractive toy in a transparent box,” ATTB) task, both of which were followed by a narrative task. Dependent measures were emotional reactivity (positive affect, negative affect), emotion regulation (self-speech, distraction) exhibited during the ALTB and the ATTB tasks, percentage of stuttered disfluencies (SDs) and percentage of non-stuttered disfluencies (NSDs) produced during the narratives.

Results.

Results indicated that preschool-age CWS exhibited significantly more negative emotion and more self-speech than preschool-age CWNS. For CWS only, emotion regulation behaviors (i.e., distraction, self-speech) during the experimental tasks were predictive of stuttered disfluencies during the subsequent narrative tasks. Furthermore, for CWS there was no relation between emotional processes and non-stuttered disfluencies, but CWNS's negative affect was significantly related to nonstuttered disfluencies.

Conclusions.

In general, present findings support the notion that emotional processes are associated with childhood stuttering. Specifically, findings are consistent with the notion that preschool-age CWS are more emotionally reactive than CWNS and that their self-speech regulatory attempts may be less than effective in modulating their emotions.Educational objectives. The reader will be able to: (a) communicate the relevance of studying the role of emotion in developmental stuttering close to the onset of stuttering and (b) describe the main findings of the present study in relation to previous studies that have used different methodologies to investigate the role of emotion in developmental stuttering of young children who stutter.     

Grammaticality sensitivity in children with early focal brain injury and children with specific language impairment

Grammaticality judgments and processing times associated with violation detection were examined in typically developing children, children with focal brain lesions (FL) acquired early in life, and children with specific language impairment (SLI). Grammatical sensitivity in the FL group, while below typically developing children, was above levels seen in children with SLI. Age effects were noted with developmental changes in sensitivity extending into adolescence. Developmental delays in grammatical processing were particularly pronounced for children with SLI, who showed sensitivity levels below those of younger typically developing children. Sensitivity to agreement violations was also protracted in the SLI group providing further evidence of the vulnerability of morphology, a pattern not unlike that seen in adult aphasics. Findings for the FL group provide compelling evidence of neural and behavioral plasticity in children with early unilateral brain injury. Moreover, results from these children underscore how very different compensatory organization may be compared to profiles seen in adult aphasics who have comparable lesions. In contrast, although it was expected that the SLI children would perform below the typically developing children, the disadvantage seen with respect to the FL group suggests that the underlying pathology responsible for SLI may be more pervasive and less plastic than the focal pathology of children with early brain damage.