Arrangements and rules of distribution of burdens and duties: the case of household chores

Two studies explored the arrangements and rules which are used in the division of household tasks and their frequencies of use with different kinds of tasks. In addition, the studies analysed justice evaluations of the arrangements and rules and the covariation of justice ratings with different kinds of tasks, gender, and relative size of raters' own contributions to the household labour. Data were obtained from two different types of household systems: households of students sharing flats and family households with adolescent children. Eight different arrangements and rules were distinguished. The frequencies of use differed significantly and were influenced by considerations of practicability, usefulness and efficiency. The justice ratings were guided by the ideal of an equal allocation of labour and additionally shaped by functional considerations of applicability and usefulness, and self-serving tendencies. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Money, Housework, Sex, and Conflict: Same-Sex Couples in Civil Unions, Those Not in Civil Unions, and Heterosexual Married Siblings

In this study we examined the division of finances, the division of household tasks, relationship maintenance behaviors, sexual activity, monogamy, and conflict among same-sex couples who had had civil unions in Vermont, same-sex couples who had not had civil unions recruited from their friendship circles, and married heterosexual couples recruited from among their siblings. Married heterosexuals had a more traditional, gendered division of finances, household tasks, and relationship maintenance behaviors, even though the heterosexuals were all siblings or in-laws of lesbians or gay men. Sexual orientation was a stronger predictor of the division of household tasks than was income difference within couples. Lesbians reported less frequent sexual activity than married heterosexual women, and gay men were less monogamous than married heterosexual men. Gay men in civil unions differed on a few variables from gay men not in civil unions, but there were no differences among lesbians.     

Bragging About One's School Grades: Gender Stereotyping and Students' Perception of Their Abilities in Science,Mathematics, and Language

Three studies examined stereotypes about the abilities of women and men and their implications for self-evaluation. All the three studies suggest that women are generally perceived as better than men in language and that men are generally perceived as better than women in science and math. Furthermore, Study 1 reveals that female university students in psychology who believe that men are better than women in science feel significantly less able in science, have lower self-esteem, and report lower school average than students who do not believe that men are better than women in science. Study 2 shows that female high school students in a language career track rate their own ability in science less highly and report lower school grades in math when gender stereotypes are salient than when they are not. Study 3 shows that male university students in science tend to rate their own ability in language less highly and report significantly lower school grades in language when gender stereotypes are activated prior to their self-evaluation than when they are not. Overall, the findings suggest that gender stereotypes can have detrimental consequences for self-concept of ability of both male and female students. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Crowding,Perceived Control,and Relative Power: An Analysis of Households in India1

Data from rural villagers in India suggested that the perception of control was related to physical health but that household density (persons per room) had few effects. In a second study, separate interviews were conducted with the husband and wife in each of 167 households, which varied greatly in terms of number of household members and number of rooms. Results indicated that, once socio-economic status and demographic factors were statistically held constant, household density had no effects. However, the density of the household in which respondents were raised did significantly affect several measures, with people who were raised in more crowded homes generally experiencing more negative outcomes in their present homes. Although number of persons in the household had few effects on respondents, the number of children in the home had several negative outcomes, particularly for women. Results also showed that, even when other variables were held constant, the perception of control over the environment was a significant predictor for both men and women on almost all dependent measures and that other perceived ways of dealing with problems (control over self and acceptance of things as they are) were much less important. At the bivariate level, the greater the difference between husbands and wives in perceived control over the environment, the more negative were the wives' reactions and experiences. However, when all other variables were held constant, this difference added no significant explanatory power for women but did explain some measures for men, with men suffering more mental distress and reacting more negatively to their home the greater their relative power.     

Factors affecting the division of labor in households

This study reports on the division of household labor in 108 Australian married-couple households and the factors which affect it. The data confirm the persistence of a very segregated division of household labor within Australian families and thus support L. Bryson's (“Thirty Years of Research on the Division of Labor in Australian Families,” Australian Journal of Sex, Marriage & Family, 1983, 4, 125–132) claim that the situation has changed very little in the last few decades. Nevertheless, some couples had moved toward more egalitarian arrangements, with the husband and wife sharing the majority of tasks. Performance of masculine household tasks is not predicted by many of the variables included in the study, with those most highly related being of an ideological nature (political orientation and egalitarianism) or personality variables (masculinity and femininity). Feminine household tasks, though, are done increasingly more often by women as time progresses in terms of age of parents, length of marriage, and number and ages of the children. These results may indicate true changes over time and/or cohort effects. Countering this trend toward greater traditionalism over time are factors that represent peoples' ideas or exposure to ideas, such as educational level achieved, whether currently receiving education, a Labor party political orientation (i.e., less conservative), and egalitarian attitudes. Occupational variables have less association than expected, and while males' income and hours worked mitigate against them participating in feminine areas of housework, women's work hours have no impact. The results for the number of shared tasks reflect those for the feminine tasks, such that as the feminine tasks are done relatively more often by women than by men, there is less sharing of tasks. The validity of measures of household task performance are discussed.     

Equality in the division of household labor: a comparative study of Jewish women and Arab Muslim women in Israel

In this study, the author compared perceptions of gender-based equality in the division of household labor among Jewish women (n = 60) and Arab Muslim women (n = 62) from dual-earner families in Israel. Guided by theories regarding the division of household labor, the author also explored the impact of 3 sets of variables--resources, gender-role attitudes, and job flexibility (flextime)--on perceived equality in the division of household labor. The findings revealed that the Jewish women tended to perceive the division of household labor as more egalitarian than did their Arab Muslim counterparts. Furthermore, the Jewish women had more egalitarian gender-role attitudes and more job flexibility than did the Arab Muslim women. However, all 3 sets of variables predicted perceived equality in the division of household labor to the same extent for both groups of women. Moreover, for both groups, education level correlated with attitudes toward household labor and with extent of job flexibility. Overall, the findings suggest that education may contribute to improving women's quality of life in both traditional and modem sociocultural contexts.     

Beginning Medical School: Determinants of Male and Female Emotional Reactions1

With the knowledge that medical students experience a variety of academic pressures as well as interpersonal stress during medical school, an assessment was made of emotional reactions among male and female students during the initial months of medical training. Questionnaires were completed at the start of school and 4 months later for the incidence of positive and negative emotions and tension-related symptoms. Students also estimated their midterm grade point average (GPA) and rated the friendliness of their peers and their experience of sex discrimination. By midterm, all students experienced negative emotions and symptoms more frequently and positive emotions less frequently than at the beginning of the school year. Additionally, women students reported more negative affect and physical symptoms at both time points than men. Women also reported a greater decrease in positive emotions and perceived peer friendliness than men. Higher anticipated GPA was associated with more frequent experience of positive emotions and less frequent negative emotions and physical symptoms in both sexes, but this pattern was stronger for women than for men. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Division of Household and Childcare Labor and Relationship Conflict Among Low-Income New Parents

We examine the relationships among the division of housework and childcare labor, perceptions of its fairness for two types of family labor (housework and childcare), and parents’ relationship conflict across the transition to parenthood. Perceived fairness is examined as a mediator of the relationships between change in the division of housework and childcare and relationship conflict. Working-class, dual-earner couples (n?=?108) in the U.S Northeast were interviewed at five time points from the third trimester of pregnancy and across the first year of parenthood. Research questions addressed whether change in the division of housework and childcare across the transition to parenthood predicted mothers’ and fathers’ relationship conflict, with attention to the mediating role of perceived fairness of these chores. Findings for housework indicated that perceived fairness was related to relationship conflict for mothers and fathers, such that when spouses perceived the change in the division of household tasks to be unfair to either partner, they reported more conflict, However, fairness did not significantly mediate relations between changes in division of household tasks and later relationship conflict. For childcare, fairness mediated relations between mothers’ violated expectations concerning the division of childcare and later conflict such that mothers reported less conflict when they perceived the division of childcare as less unfair to themselves; there was no relationship for fathers. Findings highlight the importance of considering both childcare and household tasks independently in our models and suggest that the division of housework and childcare holds different implications for mothers’ and fathers’ assessments of relationship conflict.     

Justice for whom, exactly? Beliefs in justice for the self and various others

The present studies examine why people think the world is more just to themselves than to others generally. Beliefs in justice for the self were uniquely associated with psychological adjustment, consistent with the theoretical motive to believe in justice for the self (Studies 1 and 2). However, this "justice motive" did not appear to affect the relative strength of justice beliefs. Instead, self-other differences in justice beliefs appeared to reflect objective assessments of the justice received by various demographics. Undergraduates believed the world to be more just to themselves than to others but not their undergraduate peers specifically (Study 1). Participants of both genders believed the world to be more just to men, and to themselves, than to women (Study 2). Women did not exempt themselves individually from injustice but believed, similar to men, that undergraduate women receive as much justice as men (Study 3).     

Gender differences in the effectiveness of coping with dysphoria: A longitudinal study

This study examined whether men use more eflective means of coping with dysphoria on their own than do women. Forty-four male and female college students who reported feeling dysphoric were evaluated on their coping styles at three intervals in a six and a half week time span. The findings suggest that men and women do not use significantly different appraisal and coping techniques. For both sexes, problem-focused coping was associated with less dysphoria over time, whereas emotion-focused coping was associated with more dysphoria over time. Keeping anger in was associated with more dysphoria over time for women. In addition, the way in which the situation was appraised influenced the level of dysphoria over time for both sexes.     

Effects of stimulus color, pattern, and practice on sex differences in mental rotations task performance.

Redundant color information improved performance for both sexes on the Shepard Mental Rotations Task (MRT; Shepard & Metzler, 1971). Absolute score gains for women were larger than those for men; therefore, relative improvement was greater. Substantial practice effects, also favoring women, were apparent in both studies. Study 1 showed that redundant color improved performance by 0.25 SD. Study 2 demonstrated that redundant black-and-white pattern information did not have any effect; a second visuospatial channel, redundant color, was a critical factor in improving scores of men and women on difficult mental rotations tasks.     

Predictors of conflict over the household division of labor among women employed full-time

This empirical study examined predictors of conflict over the household division of labor among a group of 319 middle class, less traditional married women in order to examine the degree to which equity factors predicted conflict. Forty of the women were either African American, Hispanic, Native American, or Asian. An analysis of covariance indicated that there were no differences by race/ethnicity. The study explored the following: (1) the degree to which equity factors predict conflicts over household labor, (2) which equity factors best account for conflict, (3) the degree to which particular equity factors mediate the relationship of conflict with other variables, (4) whether equity factors are more compelling in predicting conflicts than practical or status variables, and (5) whether women's perceptions of the reasons for conflict put more emphasis on equity than on other issues. Results indicated that while both equity and practical factors predicted conflict, equity factors were more statistically significant. The best overall model of conflict suggested that it was predicted by lower satisfaction with the division of labor (which, in turn, was contingent upon time differentials between spouses and the time a womans' spouse spent on traditional women's tasks), a larger number of household members, a woman's younger age, and performing a greater number of overall household tasks. Equity is important to such women and constitutes a basis for making arguments about justice. However, these employed women devote twelve hours more per week to household labor than their partners and are relatively satisfied with the division. Chaeftz's theory of gender equity identifies where this sample of employed women may be located in the process of change.Thanks to Diane Blohowiak for statistical assistance and to Susan Jacquet, Laura Thieme, Annette Tierrien, and Mark Hoven Stohs for assistance with data gathering. Special thanks to the reviewers.     

No pain, no gain: Perceptions of calorie expenditures of exercise and daily activities

Reduction in physical activity is considered a major contributor to weight problems. Increasingly, people are expending less energy in household chores but joining fitness clubs. Do people perceive ordinary daily activities to expend less energy than exercise activities using similar amounts of calories? In the present study college students were asked to evaluate the calorie expenditure of 30 physical activities (i.e., exercises and household tasks). The household tasks were matched (in terms of caloric expenditure) to at least one exercise activity. When participants rated both exercise and daily activities, it appears that they focused on rate of caloric expenditure rather than type of activity (i.e., household task or exercise). In Study 2, college students evaluated the energy expenditure of light/leisure, moderate, and intense exercise. This emphasis concerning the benefit of intense physical activity was observed once again. College students appear to have assimilated the belief that intense physical activity expends more energy than longer sessions of lower intensity physical activity using similar amounts of calories. Perhaps one reason why people are not physically active is that they believe physical activities must be intense to be of benefit. At the same time they are automatizing household chores and, thus, become less active overall.     

Effects of Stimulus Color,Pattern, and Practice on Sex Differences in Mental Rotations Task Performance

Redundant color information improved performance for both sexes on the Shepard Mental Rotations Task (MRT; Shepard & Metzler, 1971). Absolute score gains for women were larger than those for men; therefore, relative improvement was greater. Substantial practice effects, also favoring women, were apparent in both studies. Study 1 showed that redundant color improved performance by 0.25 SD. Study 2 demonstrated that redundant black-and-white pattern information did not have any effect; a second visuospatial channel, redundant color, was a critical factor in improving scores of men and women on difficult mental rotations tasks.     

No pain, no gain: Perceptions of calorie expenditures of exercise and daily activities

Reduction in physical activity is considered a major contributor to weight problems. Increasingly, people are expending less energy in household chores but joining fitness clubs. Do people perceive ordinary daily activities to expend less energy than exercise activities using similar amounts of calories? In the present study college students were asked to evaluate the calorie expenditure of 30 physical activities (i.e., exercises and household tasks). The household tasks were matched (in terms of caloric expenditure) to at least one exercise activity. When participants rated both exercise and daily activities, it appears that they focused on rate of caloric expenditure rather than type of activity (i.e., household task or exercise). In Study 2, college students evaluated the energy expenditure of light/leisure, moderate, and intense exercise. This emphasis concerning the benefit of intense physical activity was observed once again. College students appear to have assimilated the belief that intense physical activity expends more energy than longer sessions of lower intensity physical activity using similar amounts of calories. Perhaps one reason why people are not physically active is that they believe physical activities must be intense to be of benefit. At the same time they are automatizing household chores and, thus, become less active overall.     

Facial action patterns, electromyography, and moods in response to an insoluble task as a function of sex and sex-role differences

College students of either androgynous or sex-typed orientation were randomly assigned to either an insoluble concept-formation task or a solvable one. Posttreatment scores were compared for measures of dysphoric mood (Multiple Affect Adjective List), electromyographic responses (corrugator and zygomatic), and discrete facial responses (Facial Action Coding System). In Study 1, 18 androgynous women were compared to 16 feminine women; in Study 2, 16 androgynous men were compared to 16 masculine men. The insoluble task was associated with more corrugator activity (frowning) than the solvable task in both studies. Feminine women displayed more corrugator responses across both tasks than androgynous women. However, masculine men did not differ from androgynous men in over-all corrugator response activity. Androgynous women smiled more than feminine women on the facial action coding measure. Men subjected to the insoluble task reported significantly more anxiety, depression, and hostility. Masculine men scored higher on anxiety during the insoluble task than androgynous men, while the latter scored somewhat higher on anxiety in the other condition.     

Perceived level of stress among university undergraduate students in Edmonton, Canada.

A sample of 457 (177 men, 280 women) undergraduate students were surveyed regarding perceived level of stress. Women were more likely than men to report an unacceptable stress level. To reduce stress, women were more likely to indicate a need to limit commitments, exercise, and worry less. Reasons for not reducing stress were lack of time and lack of self-discipline, both of which were reported significantly more often by women. The present data suggest health education interventions are needed to assist students in coping with the stress they experience.     

Family Demands and Job Attribute Preferences: A 4-Year Longitudinal Study of Women and Men

A longitudinal data set was used to examine the relationships between family demands and job attribute preferences. Study participants were 207 students who responded to surveys upon entering the MBA program of a large university and to follow-up surveys 1, 2, and 3 years later. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that preferences for short, flexible work hours at earlier time periods positively predicted hours of household labor at later times, which supports a rational action model. Significant interaction effects indicated that the relationship between the importance of work hours and household labor was stronger for women than for men, which indicates that women were more likely than men to develop plans for combining work and family. Higher levels of household labor were associated with increased preferences for short, flexible work hours, and a comfortable work environment, which supports an accommodation model, but MBA students performing more household labor did not show a reduction in the desire for high salaries, good benefits, and intrinsically rewarding work.     

Sexual Peak: Socially Shared Cognitions About Desire,Frequency, and Satisfaction in Men and Women

Is a man’s sexual peak earlier than a woman’s? Three studies were conducted to examine (a) whether the perception that men achieve their sexual peak at a younger age than do women is shared across individuals of different ages and sexes, (b) whether sexual peak is defined differently for men and women, and (c) whether differences between definitions contribute to differences in the age at which men and women are perceived to reach sexual peak. Study 1 suggested that participants believed that females reach their sexual peak at an older age than do males. Study 2 indicated that the defining feature of sexual peak for males was sexual desire and for females was sexual satisfaction. Study 3 suggested that predictions of male sexual peak coincided with participants’ predictions of male age of highest desire and frequency, but not satisfaction, and that female sexual peak coincided with participants' predictions of female age of highest satisfaction but not frequency or desire. Discussion focuses on potential reasons for differences between the perception of male and female sexuality, as well as the social and evolutionary importance of each of the dimensions of sexuality for both males and females.     

Reactions to male-favouring versus female-favouring sex differences: A pre-registered experiment and Southeast Asian replication

Two studies investigated (1) how people react to research describing a sex difference, depending on whether that difference favours males or females, and (2) how accurately people can predict how the average man and woman will react. In Study 1, Western participants (N = 492) viewed a fictional popular-science article describing either a male-favouring or a female-favouring sex difference (i.e., men/women draw better; women/men lie more). Both sexes reacted less positively to the male-favouring differences, judging the findings to be less important, less credible, and more offensive, harmful, and upsetting. Participants predicted that the average man and woman would react more positively to sex differences favouring their own sex. This was true of the average woman, although the level of own-sex favouritism was lower than participants predicted. It was not true, however, of the average man, who – like the average woman – reacted more positively to the female-favouring differences. Study 2 replicated these findings in a Southeast Asian sample (N = 336). Our results are consistent with the idea that both sexes are more protective of women than men, but that both exaggerate the level of same-sex favouritism within each sex – a misconception that could potentially harm relations between the sexes.