背景任务刺激间的时距对前瞻干扰效应的影响

前瞻记忆是指形成和保持一个意向直到合适的情境或时间再执行的一种记忆任务。由于在执行背景任务的过程中保持和提取前瞻意向, 使成功执行前瞻记忆任务与加工背景任务之间存在着相互影响。保持前瞻记忆意向对背景任务的反应时和正确率有影响的现象称之为前瞻干扰效应。本研究通过操纵背景任务刺激间时距的两个实验, 考察了背景任务刺激间时距长度对时间性前瞻记忆和事件性前瞻记忆干扰效应量的对比关系的影响。结果发现随着背景任务刺激间时距缩短, 两类前瞻记忆干扰效应量的对比关系发生了变化, 且在背景任务刺激间时距长度不同的情况下执行时间性前瞻记忆任务时, 被试查看时钟的策略也有差异。提示了时间性前瞻记忆任务与事件性前瞻记忆任务认知加工机制上的不同。     

任务中断对幼儿前瞻记忆的影响

本研究采用实验方法研究了年龄及当前进行任务中不同位置的中断对幼儿前瞻记忆的影响。结果发现：(1)年龄对幼儿前瞻记忆成绩有显著影响;(2)在1／4中断和无中断条件下,幼儿的前瞻记忆成绩较好,在1／2中断和3／4中断条件下．幼儿前瞻记忆成绩较差。     

分散注意条件下间隔对小学生前瞻记忆影响的实验研究

本实验研究在分散注意条件下,含有靶线索活动出现延迟问隔对前瞻记忆的影响。实验采用视觉与听觉分散注意的实验材料,嵌入前赡记忆任务进行研究。实验结果表明：(1)间隔在0—1分钟时,前瞻记忆对进行中任务稍有影响,但不显著;(2)间隔降低前瞻记忆任务成绩;(3)前瞻记忆任务成绩在0-1分钟呈快速遗忘趋势,3分钟后出现平台期。     

前瞻记忆的干扰效应：多重加工的证据

通过2个实验,对背景任务时间充裕和紧迫两种情况下的具体事件意向、类别事件意向、时间点意向、时间段意向四种前瞻记忆任务对背景任务的干扰效应进行考察。结果表明,在背景任务时间充裕情况下,类别事件意向对背景任务有干扰效应,具体事件意向、时间段意向和时间点意向都没有前瞻干扰效应;在背景任务时间紧迫情况下,时间点意向产生了干扰效应,具体事件意向、类别事件意向、时间段意向均无干扰效应。结果支持前瞻记忆的实现依赖多重加工的观点,时间性前瞻记忆并不一定比事件性前瞻记忆产生更大的干扰。     

编码与提取时长对提取练习效应的影响

提取练习效应的研究揭示了提取在记忆保持中的重要性,新近研究表明RPE的产生是编码和提取共同作用的结果。本研究通过两个实验考察编码与提取时长对RPE的影响。实验1采用2(编码时长:3秒,10秒)×2(提取时长:8秒,13秒)的被试间设计,考察即时测试(5分钟后)条件下的RPE。实验2将最终测试的时间间隔延长至24小时。结果发现,延长编码时间有利于提高即时测试下的记忆成绩及记忆保持率,但这一优势随测试间隔延长而消失;延长提取时间在即时和延迟测试下均导致了更高的记忆成绩和记忆保持率。研究表明,编码时长对RPE的影响与测试间隔有关,提取时长是影响RPE的关键因素。     

进行中任务变化对轻度认知功能障碍者基于事件前瞻记忆的影响

本实验采用2被试组别(MCI组、正常老年组) × 3进行中任务变化(无变化、顺序变化、随机变化)被试间设计探究进行中任务变化对轻度认知功能障碍者基于事件前瞻记忆的影响。结果表明：(1)轻度认知功能障碍者的前瞻记忆成绩显著低于正常老年人的前瞻记忆成绩; (2)进行中任务变化对两组被试前瞻记忆和进行中任务的反应时影响存在显著差异。进行中任务变化越大, 轻度认知功能障碍者完成前瞻记忆和进行中任务的反应速度越慢; 而正常老年被试则不受影响。研究支持前瞻记忆策略加工的理论观点, 认为执行功能损伤可能是导致轻度认知功能障碍者前瞻记忆失败的主要原因。     

前瞻记忆类型差异及动机与任务序列对前瞻记忆的影响*

本文采用“模拟星期”范式通过3个实验分别考察了前瞻记忆任务类型的差异以及动机与任务序列对前瞻记忆的影响。结果表明：(1)规律性前瞻记忆任务的正确率显著高于非规律性的,即使本研究条件下对非规律性前瞻记忆任务进行奖励与惩罚,仍没有消除两者间的差异。(2)不论是惩罚还是奖励都可以显著提高非规律性前瞻记忆的成绩,而且动机促进作用会蔓延至非直接强化的前瞻记忆任务。(3)固定序列前瞻记忆成绩显著优于随机序列的,且在实验过程中固定序列前瞻记忆的成绩呈上升趋势,而随机序列的基本不变,固定序列在一定程度上反映了行为习惯的建立过程。(4)不论前瞻记忆任务规律与否,惩罚或奖励,任务序列如何,基于时间的前瞻记忆成绩均优于基于事件的前瞻记忆的成绩。(5)时间确认任务中,被试翻看时钟的次数与其正确率间呈显著正相关,且越临近规定时间翻看次数越多,呈J型分布。     

情绪刺激对前瞻记忆的影响

使用情绪图片作为背景任务刺激,通过两个实验来考察积极情绪和消极情绪对时间性和事件性前瞻记忆的影响。结果发现,对于背景任务的反应时,在时间性前瞻记忆和事件性前瞻记忆中,情绪的主效应都显著。而对于前瞻任务的正确率,在两种前瞻记忆中,情绪的主效应都不显著。将两个实验的数据合并分析发现,对于前瞻任务的正确率,任务类型的主效应显著,即时间性前瞻记忆的成绩显著高于事件性前瞻记忆; 而情绪的主效应不显著。结果表明,背景任务中不同的情绪刺激会对个体完成背景任务的速度产生影响,而对前瞻记忆任务的执行不会产生影响。     

加工焦点性和任务负荷对不同认知方式大学生前瞻记忆的影响

采用双任务范式,探讨了加工焦点性和进行中任务负荷对不同认知方式大学生前瞻记忆的影响。包括两个实验:实验一探讨进行中任务与前瞻记忆任务加工的焦点性和加工类型的一致性对不同认知方式大学生前瞻记忆的影响;实验二探讨进行中任务负荷对不同认知方式大学生在在焦点加工和非焦点加工条件下前瞻记忆的影响。结果显示:焦点加工条件下的前瞻记忆成绩高于非焦点加工,且不受进行中任务负荷的影响;不管进行中任务与前瞻记忆任务的加工类型是否一致,在进行中任务负荷较高且非焦点加工条件下,场独立大学生的前瞻记忆成绩高于场依存大学生。本研究结果支持多重加工理论。     

目标显著性和任务重要性对数学学业不良生和学优生前瞻记忆和前瞻干扰效应的影响

有问卷调查表明,个体的学业成绩特别是数学成绩与前瞻记忆表现有一定的相关,学业不良生报告更多的前瞻记忆失败。也有实验研究显示,学业不良生在很多情况下前瞻记忆表现劣于学优生。但是,影响学业不良生前瞻记忆表现的因素却并不是很明确。本研究从目标显著性和任务重要性这两个可以着手于改善前瞻记忆的主要因素入手,考察其对数学学业不良生和学优生事件性前瞻记忆和前瞻干扰效应的影响,以期为提高学业不良生的前瞻记忆表现提供实证依据。 采用2学业成就（学业不良生、学优生）×2前瞻记忆任务重要性（强调重要、不强调）×2目标显著性（显著、不显著）混合实验设计,目标显著性为被试内变量,其他两个因素为被试间变量,在双任务实验范式（前瞻记忆任务镶嵌于进行中任务）中,考察三个因素对前瞻记忆正确率和反应时的影响。此外,被试还需完成基线条件,在基线条件下被试只有进行中任务,没有前瞻记忆任务,通过实验条件和基线条件的正确率和反应时差异,考察前瞻记忆任务对进行中任务的干扰效应,推测前瞻记忆的加工机制。结果表明,学业不良生在所有前瞻记忆任务表现均劣于学优生;目标显著性与前瞻记忆任务重要性对前瞻记忆正确率有显著的交互作用,强调任务重要性使目标不显著条件下的前瞻记忆正确率提高,对显著条件的前瞻记忆正确率没有影响。强调任务重要性使所有实验条件的前瞻记忆反应时下降,目标显著使所有实验条件的前瞻记忆正确率提高。所有实验条件进行中任务正确率低于基线条件,反应时也慢于基线条件,表明执行前瞻记忆任务对进行中任务产生了干扰,学业不良生和学优生在本实验条件下对前瞻记忆任务均采用监控的加工方式。结果说明,学业不良生前瞻记忆成绩较差,可以通过设置显著的目标提高其前瞻记忆成绩,当目标显著时无需强调其重要性,若无法设置显著的目标,则通过强调任务重要性提高前瞻记忆表现。     

Comparing time-based and event-based prospective memory over short delays

The current study compared monitoring in time- and event-based prospective memory (PM). Time- and event-based non-focal task instructions were given after a baseline block of a lexical decision ongoing task. Delay between instruction and presentation of PM cue/time was manipulated between-subjects to examine monitoring across short delays (1–6?min). Longer delays decreased performance in the event-based task, but not in the time-based task. This accuracy decline was accompanied by a decline in monitoring (as measured by PM cost to the ongoing task in the trials immediately before the PM cue was presented) between the 1 and 3?min delays. Monitoring was only evident for the time-based task at the 6?min delay as measured by PM cost to the ongoing task. Clock checks were also not affected by delay, but did increase in frequency as the response time neared. These results suggest that delay from the time of intention formation decreases both accuracy and monitoring in event-based tasks, but does not decrease accuracy or monitoring in time-based tasks.     

Cognitive control processes underlying time-based prospective memory impairment in individuals with high depressive symptomatology

The current study compared time-based prospective memory (PM) for individuals with high depressive symptomatology (HDS) and low depressive symptomatology (LDS). We examined PM accuracy rate, clock-checking frequency, and decrements in ongoing task performance (i.e., costs to ongoing tasks) associated with an embedded time-based PM task. HDS participants demonstrated numerically lower but statistically comparable clock-checking frequency to LDS participants. However, their PM performance was significantly poorer than that of LDS participants. The pattern of observed costs to ongoing tasks and correlational analyses between ongoing task performance and PM accuracy showed that, relative to LDS participants, HDS participants were restricted in their allocation of attentional resources to support PM. We concluded that although HDS and LDS participants externally controlled their time-based PM task performance (i.e., clock-checking) similarly, the HDS participants lacked the cognitive initiative to allocate attentional resources to internally control PM task performance. Such internal control might reflect time-estimation processes, the resources required to maintain the PM task response intention, and/or the ability to coordinate the PM task response with ongoing task demands. To our knowledge, this is the first paper to have examined time-based PM strategies used by HDS individuals beyond clock-checking. The data suggest that interventions that encourage intermittent strategic reviews of PM goals may be beneficial for individuals with high depressive symptomatology.     

Preliminary remarks on type of task and delay in children's prospective memory

This study investigated the extent to which the type of task influences children's prospective memory performance. 80 subjects, aged 7 to 11 yr. participated in an experiment in which the type of task (time-based vs event-based) and the retention interval (5 min. vs 10 min.) varied. The prospective memory task was embedded in a principal task lasting about 15 min. and required subjects perform an action at a given time or in response to a specific cue. Analysis indicated that the delay was associated with prospective memory performance only on a time-based task in which the intention has to be performed after 10 min. but not age. Analysis indicated also that time monitoring was associated with shorter latency between the target time and the execution of the intention on the time-based task. Implications were discussed.     

Younger and older adults’ prospective memory: the role of delay task difficulty

ABSTRACT

There is mixed evidence on the impact of delay task difficulty on prospective memory (PM) performance and little research has examined this among older adults. The present study examined younger (N = 60) and older (N = 57) adults’ prospective memory (PM) performance after completing an easy or difficult Raven’s matrices task. To assess whether delay difficulty impacted how often participants thought about their PM intention, participants were asked to report on what they thought about during the delay task itself and retrospectively after all tasks were completed. Younger adults outperformed older adults on the PM task; however, delay task difficulty had no impact PM for either age group. Reports of thinking about the intention during the delay task differed by age group depending whether they were online or retrospective, however, overall greater reports of thinking about the intention was positively associated with PM performance.     

The effects of collaboration and punishment on prospective memory performance in a group setting

Remembering to perform a delayed intention is termed prospective memory (PM). Often delayed intentions are shared by more than one person; however, there is a dearth of studies examining PM in social settings. We aimed to investigate whether the potential consequences of one's behavior across diverse group settings influence PM performance in event‐ and time‐based tasks. A total of 207 participants were randomly allocated to either an individual, collaborative, or collaborative plus penalty motivation condition and were tested in a 2‐ or 3‐person setting. For the time‐based PM task, participants responded less timely in the individual motivation condition, whereas there was no difference between the collaborative motivation conditions. No significant effects were found for motivation condition on the event‐based task or for group size on PM performance. Analyses of ongoing task performance revealed that participants' attention allocation policies change depending on how individuals prioritize the ongoing and PM tasks.     

Prospective and retrospective memory in normal aging and dementia: an experimental study

Two experiments investigated the effects of normal aging and dementia on laboratory-based prospective memory (PM) tasks. Participants viewed a film for a later recognition memory task. In Experiment 1, they were also required either to say "animal" when an animal appeared in the film (event-based PM task) or to stop a clock every 3 min (time-based PM task). In both tasks, young participants were more successful than older participants, who were, in turn, more successful than patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). For successful remembering in the time-based task, older participants and AD patients checked the clock more often than did young participants. In Experiment 2, participants were asked to reset a clock either when an animal appeared in the film (unrelated cue-action) or when a clock appeared in the film (related cue-action). Responses were faster in the related condition than in the unrelated condition. Again, there were differences in PM performance between young and older participants, and between older participants and AD patients. The observed deficits were not due to the forgetting of the PM task instructions in either experiment. Retrospective memory (RM) tasks (digit span, sentence span, free recall, and recognition) were more impaired by AD than were the PM tasks. Factor analysis revealed separate factors corresponding to RM and PM.     

Motivation,depression, and naturalistic time-based prospective remembering

This study investigated the effect of a motivational manipulation on naturalistic time-based prospective memory (PM) task performance. The association between depression and PM task performance was also investigated. First-year psychology students were required to send mobile phone text messages (SMSs) at a specific time 3 days and 6 days after an initial meeting. During the delay period participants recorded details of the retrieval whenever they remembered the SMS task. Participants given the incentive of extra course credit (motivation condition) outperformed their counterparts on the PM tasks, and showed a greater increase in the reported frequency of self-initiated retrievals on target days. Depression was negatively correlated with PM task performance. The findings suggest that motivational instructions impact the controlled processes underlying PM.     

Executive functioning and prospective memory in young children

The current study examined the role of executive functioning (EF) in children's prospective memory (PM) by assessing the effect of delay and number of intentions to-be-remembered on PM, as well as relations between PM and EF. Ninety-six 4-, 5-, and 6-year-olds completed a PM task and two executive function tasks. The PM task required children to interrupt an ongoing card game to perform one action (single intention) or two actions (dual intention) with target cards after a short delay (1 min) or a long delay (5 min). There was no main effect of number of intentions or delay on the PM task. However, performance improved with age, and age and delay interacted such that 4-year-olds’ performance remained the same after a long delay whereas 5-year-olds’ performance improved after a long delay. We suggest that the age by delay interaction is a product of age differences in cognitive monitoring. Working memory but not inhibitory control predicted PM with age controlled. We argue that an executive function framework permits an integrative understanding of many processes involved in young children's prospective memory.     

Time-based prospective remembering: Interference and facilitation in a dual task

The aim of this study was to analyse prospective memory behaviour when people have to fulfil two different intentions whose retention intervals partially overlapped. More specifically, the purpose of the study was to explore the effects of a secondary PM task (either time-based or event-based) on performance of a main time-based PM task. Four embedded conditions were tested: two event-based ones and two time-based ones. The time- and event-based interpolated tasks differed in how closely their target time was to the 20-minute response required by the main time-based task (16th and 19th min., respectively). The results indicated that when a main time-based prospective memory task shares a portion of the retention interval with a second time-based prospective task, this overlapping facilitated performance on the main task. However, the interpolated tasks appeared to be affected by the moment in which they were administered during the execution of the main time-based task. More specifically, a decrease in the interpolated task performance was observed when this was time-based and had to be executed very closely to the target time of the main task. On the contrary, when the two tasks were different (event-based vs. time-based), there was neither interference, nor facilitation.     

绝对重要性和认知负荷影响基于事件的前瞻记忆

操作前瞻记忆任务的重要性的方式有两种,研究发现相对重要性会造成进行中任务的损耗,而绝对重要性的研究较少且结果不尽一致,这种差异可能与进行中任务占用认知资源的情况有关。我们使用绝对重要性的指导语来操纵前瞻记忆任务的重要性高或者低,并且以Stroop任务作为进行中任务,来考察绝对重要性和认知资源占用的交互影响。结果发现,在进行中任务一致条件下,绝对重要性的增高促进了进行中任务的完成;而不一致条件下,则会阻碍进行中任务的完成。这说明,进行中任务的认知资源变化与前瞻记忆任务重要性对进行中任务的影响有着交互调节作用。