前摄干扰对汉语听写困难儿童字形工作记忆的影响

字形工作记忆（O-WM）是书写加工过程中汉字部件的临时存储点,其重要功能之一是保证部件表征的区分性特征。关于汉语O-WM的研究主要来自脑损伤个案,目前还没有关于汉语听写困难儿童是否存在O-WM损伤的报道。本研究采用两个实验,分别探讨视觉和语音前摄干扰对听写困难儿童汉字部件再认的影响。结果发现：（1）听写困难儿童的部件判断存在视觉前摄干扰效应,而正常儿童没有表现出视觉前摄干扰效应（实验一）;（2）两组儿童均没有出现明显的语音前摄干扰效应（实验二）。该结果表明,汉语听写困难儿童O-WM在保证部件视觉表征的区分性功能上存在缺陷,并支持汉语O-WM中汉字部件的表征是以字形为基础的观点。     

图文横排促进低熟悉词汇再认:基于8岁儿童和成人证据

图文信息广泛存在于书面材料中,但是图文材料相对呈现位置和熟悉性如何交互影响信息加工效率,及其认知机制尚不清楚。本研究基于认知负荷理论框架,采用学习-再认范式,结合学习者的认知能力（注意、工作记忆、识字量等）,考察图文材料呈现位置（横排/竖排）和熟悉性（高/低）对32名儿童（7.89 ±0.30岁）和32名成人（22.67 ±3.48岁）词汇再认的影响。结果显示：（1）总体上,低熟悉性词汇在图文横排呈现时再认正确率较高,但高熟悉性词汇不受位置影响;（2）儿童对高熟悉性词汇的再认正确率较高,但成人对低熟悉性词汇的再认正确率较高;（3）儿童识字量越大,词汇再认速度越快;成人注意力、工作记忆广度、识字量成绩越高,再认正确率越高。结果表明,无论对儿童还是成人,外在负荷（呈现位置）和内在负荷（熟悉性）之间均存在交互作用,即外在负荷显著影响高内在负荷信息的加工,但对低内在负荷信息的加工影响较弱,验证了认知负荷理论。本研究成果为不同难度水平的教材排版设计和词汇识别学习提供了科学依据。     

汉语双字词语音关联对错误记忆的影响

研究运用DRM范式,以具有语音关联的汉语双字词为材料,采用2（语音类型）×3（词语类型）被试内实验设计,考察汉语双字词语音关联对错误记忆的影响。结果表明：（1）被试对诱饵词的错误再认率显著高于对填充词的错误再认率,说明汉语双字词语音关联能够诱发错误记忆;（2）双字词表与单字词表引发的语音关联性错误记忆效应相当,小于语义及字形关联的错误记忆效应;（3）尾音关联词表中词语再认率高于首音关联词表。     

整体字形对部件识别的影响

该研究借用 Estes的部件再认范式 ,以真字假字和部件字三种刺激材料探索了合体汉字 (或假字 )整体字形对部件的影响 ,结果发现 :(1 )对左右结构型和上下结构型汉字中的部件识别存在字优效应 ;而假字中 ,这二种结构方式的部件识别存在着假字劣效应。(2 )对左右结构型和上下结构型字刺激中的部件识别存在着部位效应。字形整体对左部件或上部件的影响大于右部件或下部件。     

拼音在方言儿童字词学习中的作用

本研究比较了以普通话与以方言为口语的儿童在根据拼音来学习生词或再认熟词时的成绩。研究结果发现 ,与普通话组相比 ,拼音对方言组儿童学习字词的积极作用在帮助他们再认已学过的词时最大。由于方言的影响 ,除了再认已学过的词汇外 ,拼音对方言儿童的积极作用明显不如学普通话的儿童。而对于普通话组来说 ,拼音更能够帮助儿童学习口语中熟悉的生词 ,而且对由一个生字组成的概念熟悉的词的积极影响大于由两个生字组成的概念熟悉的词。     

合体汉字字形识别过程探索

该研究用微观发生范式探索了合体汉字和假字的字形识别过程 ,结果发现 :(1 )部件字、真字和假字的正确提取率随呈现时间增长而提高 ,字形刺激的特征加工是一个有序的发展过程 ,对字形的识别加工过程受字形熟悉性和字形结构方式的影响 ;(2 )在左右型字刺激和上下型字刺激中 ,经常首先从右部件或下部件中提取笔画或笔画组合 (称首特征 ) ,而且首特征的提取不受字形熟悉性影响。根据以上结果可以推测 ,字形结构属性在字形识别加工的最初阶段先于特征获加工 ,字形熟悉性则对首特征提取后的特征或部件加工过程产生影响。     

负性情绪强度对双加工再认提取的影响

双加工理论认为再认提取存在回想和熟悉性两种认知加工过程。本研究采用修正的“记得/知道”范式,考察不同强度的负性情绪对这两种再认提取过程的影响。结果发现：（1）在记得反应上不同负性情绪强度的材料呈现出以下模式：高度负性 > 中度负性 > 轻度负性 > 中性;（2）在知道反应上,不同负性情绪强度的材料呈现出以下模式：中性 > 轻度负性 > 中度负性 > 高度负性。这些结果表明,不同强度的负性材料对情绪记忆的影响表现为两条途径：依赖于回想的再认随着负性情绪强度的增加而逐步提高,另外一个依赖于熟悉性的再认随着负性情绪强度的增加而逐步降低。     

充分加工条件下听写困难儿童的整体字形加工特点

听写困难是指儿童能够认读不能听写的现象。前期研究表明,在快速加工条件下,听写困难儿童存在整体字形加工缺陷。本研究使用学习-回忆方法,考察在充分加工条件下,听写困难儿童的整体字形加工特点。实验结果表明,在充分加工条件下,听写困难儿童不仅能够加工并形成双部件合体字的整体字形表征;而且,也能够在同字形组织水平上,形成多部件合体字的整体字形表征。因此,在充分加工条件下,听写困难儿童的整体字形加工能力正常。     

汉字错误记忆的形、音编码差异研究

采取DRM范式,要求被试判断词表项目的字形结构或音调,从而间接学习词表,考察了关联性、不同编码方式和测验情境（测验次数、测验词颜色两个变量）对真实和错误记忆的影响。实验发现：（1）随着关联性的增加,未学词的错误再认率也增加,说明关联性是引发错误记忆的必要条件;（2）字形判断比字音判断下的错误再认率要高,说明汉字中形—义联结可能比音—义联结更加紧密;（3）测验情境对真实和错误记忆影响并不相同,表明两者虽然同源,但具有完全不同的机制。     

汉字词错觉结合的层次和影响因素

采用数字再认与词汇再认双作业范式，从笔画、部件、整字层次，考察汉字错觉结合的层次和影响因素。结果发现：（1）在汉字词识别中，两个相邻字（词）之间存在笔画、部件或字的互换错误，说明在笔画、部件和字的层次上存在错觉结合。（2）字的错觉结合率最高，其次是部件，笔画最低。（3）汉字词的错觉结合受刺激对的呈现方式、汉字结构和词性影响。     

Chinese writing system and learning to read

One of the obvious characteristics of the Chinese writing system is its visual complexity. How do children develop their reading and writing ability in such a system? The areas we address in the present study include: (1) The basic unit in character recognition and writing of Chinese children. (2) The role of familiarity of components and the position frequency of components in character recognition and writing. In the first experiment, the subjects were first‐, second‐, fourth‐, and sixth‐graders. Children were asked to delay copy five types of characters: familiar single characters, familiar compound characters, unfamiliar compounds with familiar components, unfamiliar compounds with unfamiliar components, and noncharacters, with the components in impossible positions. The results show that older children were affected more by the familiarity and the position frequency of components in the delayed copy task. In the second experiment, the subjects were from the same grades. Children were asked to carry out lexical decision for five types of characters: real compound characters, pseudocharacters with well‐formed structure and real components, noncharacters with ill‐formed structure but real components, and noncharacters with well‐formed structure but nonreal components. The results show that children can be aware of the ill‐formed structure early, and become aware of well‐formed structure but nonreal components as they grow older. The results suggest that the component of character is the basic unit in children's lexical representation. Familiarity of components and the position frequency of components in characters affect children's character recognition and writing.     

Phonological recoding and rapid orthographic learning in third-graders' silent reading: a critical test of the self-teaching hypothesis

This study examined rapid orthographic learning following silent reading in third-grade children as a function of number of target nonword repetitions and test delay. In each of two test sessions at least 6 days apart, children read a series of short stories, with each story containing a different nonword repeated either four or eight times. In the second session, after the stories had been read, children were asked to read short lists of target nonwords or homophonic alternatives. Children read target nonwords faster than homophones, indicating that they had formed functional orthographic representations of the target nonwords through phonologically recoding them during silent story reading. They also preferred target nonwords to homophones in an orthographic choice task in which the alternatives included the target, the homophone, and a visually similar foil, although here orthographic learning was stronger for items encountered eight times within stories and stronger for items tested immediately. These findings provide critical evidence in support of Share's self-teaching through phonological recoding hypothesis.     

The role of phonological recoding in orthographic learning

The objective of this research was to explore whether orthographic learning occurs as a result of phonological recoding, as expected from the self-teaching hypothesis. The participants were 32 fourth- and fifth-graders (mean age = 10 years 0 months, SD = 7 months) who performed lexical decisions for monosyllabic real words and pseudowords under two matched experimental conditions: a read aloud condition, wherein items were named prior to lexical decision to promote phonological recoding, and a concurrent articulation condition, presumed to attenuate phonological recoding. Later, orthographic learning of the pseudowords was evaluated using orthographic choice, spelling, and naming tasks. Consistent with the self-teaching hypothesis, targets learned with phonological recoding in the read aloud condition yielded greater orthographic learning than those learned with concurrent articulation. The research confirms the critical nature of phonological recoding in the development of visual word recognition skills and an orthographic lexicon.     

内隐学习中东巴文促进幼儿汉字字形记忆的研究

采用任务分离范式考察了内隐学习中只学汉字、结合图画学习汉字、结合东巴文学习汉字对幼儿汉字字形记忆的影响。幼儿通过颜色判断任务进行学习。实验1采用再认任务考察学习方式对汉字字形外显记忆的影响。实验2采用偏好判断任务考察学习方式对汉字字形内隐记忆的影响。研究发现, 在伴随学习条件下, 东巴文能够促进幼儿对汉字字形的外显记忆, 东巴文可以成为幼儿汉字学习的工具。     

Context effects on orthographic learning of regular and irregular words

The self-teaching hypothesis proposes that orthographic learning takes place via phonological decoding in meaningful texts, that is, in context. Context is proposed to be important in learning to read, especially when decoding is only partial. However, little research has directly explored this hypothesis. The current study looked at the effect of context on orthographic learning and examined whether there were different effects for novel words given regular and irregular pronunciations. Two experiments were conducted using regular and irregular novel words, respectively. Second-grade children were asked to learn eight novel words either in stories or in a list of words. The results revealed no significant effect of context for the regular items. However, in an orthographic decision task, there was a facilitatory effect of context on irregular novel word learning. The findings support the view that contextual information is important to orthographic learning, but only when the words to be learned contain irregular spelling-sound correspondences.     

Orthographic learning during reading: examining the role of self-teaching

Thirty-four second grade children read target homophonic pseudowords (e.g., slurst/slirst) in the context of real stories in a test of the self-teaching theory of early reading acquisition. The degree of orthographic learning was assessed with three converging tasks: homophonic choice, spelling, and target naming. Each of the tasks indicated that orthographic learning had taken place because processing of target homophones (e.g., yait) was superior to that of their homophonic controls (e.g., yate). Consistent with the self-teaching hypothesis, we obtained a substantial correlation (r=.52) between orthographic learning and the number of target homophones correctly decoded during story reading. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated that neither RAN tasks nor general cognitive ability predicted variance in orthographic learning once the number of target homophones correctly decoded during story reading had been partialed out. In contrast, a measure of orthographic knowledge predicted variance in orthographic learning once the number of targets correctly decoded had been partialed. The development of orthographic knowledge appears to be not entirely parasitic on decoding ability. (c) 2002 Elsevier Science (USA).     

儿童汉字读音声旁一致性意识的发展

采用同音判断的方法,考察儿童对汉字读音声旁一致性意识的发展。一个熟悉字和一个不熟悉字共用同一个声旁,该声旁在提示整字发音时可以是一致的,即包含此声旁的所有汉字都发音相同,也可以是不一致的。要求儿童猜测不熟悉字的读音,作出它与熟悉字“是”、“否”同音的判断。结果发现,儿童很早就意识到汉字的结构以及声旁和形旁在表音、表义功能上的分工。随着年级的升高,声旁一致性对猜测不熟悉汉字读音的影响增强。小学四年级语文能力较高的儿童已经开始意识到声旁的一致性;六年级儿童总体上说来已发展了一致性意识。初二年级的学生发展了声旁一致性意识,且没有能力差异。大学生的声旁一致性意识最强。     

义符熟悉性对高频形声字词汇通达的影响

采用启动词汇判断范式,考察义符熟悉性对高频汉字形声字认知的影响。结果表明,义符加工与整字加工存在动态的交互作用。在加工早期,高频汉字形声字的整字语义已经激活,但此时义符的语义并未激活。高熟悉性义符的词形启动比低熟悉性义符早。随着SOA增长,高、低熟悉性义符的语义都出现激活。到了加工晚期,汉字形声字整字的语义激活仍然显著,但义符的语义激活消失,表明字词认知的整合过程已经完成。这一结果支持汉字认知中整字加工和部件加工相结合的观点     

Are orthographic rules used by children with and without writing disabilities? / ¿Utilizan las reglas ortográficas los niños con y sin dificultades de aprendizaje en la escritura de palabras?

The aim of this study was to explore whether children with and without learning difficulties use orthographic rules to write words. To study this, two types of tasks from the Early Grade Writing Assessment (EGWA) test were used: (1) a dictation task which included pseudowords with an implicit orthographic rule; and (2) a dictation task which included words with arbitrary, unregulated orthography. An initial sample of 1,447 students from grades 1 to 3 of elementary school was selected. The results showed that the variables task type and grade were significant when explaining the differences found between the groups. These findings are discussed from the perspective of the orthographic representations self-teaching hypothesis as related to the orthographic depth hypothesis, associated with the orthographic transparency of Spanish.     

English Orthographic Learning in Chinese-L1 Young EFL Beginners

English orthographic learning, among Chinese-L1 children who were beginning to learn English as a foreign language, was documented when: (1) only visual memory was at their disposal, (2) visual memory and either some letter-sound knowledge or some semantic information was available, and (3) visual memory, some letter-sound knowledge and some semantic information were all available. When only visual memory was available, orthographic learning (measured via an orthographic choice test) was meagre. Orthographic learning was significant when either semantic information or letter-sound knowledge supplemented visual memory, with letter-sound knowledge generating greater significance. Although the results suggest that letter-sound knowledge plays a more important role than semantic information, letter-sound knowledge alone does not suffice to achieve perfect orthographic learning, as orthographic learning was greatest when letter-sound knowledge and semantic information were both available. The present findings are congruent with a view that the orthography of a foreign language drives its orthographic learning more than L1 orthographic learning experience, thus extending Share’s (Cognition 55:151–218, 1995) self-teaching hypothesis to include non-alphabetic L1 children’s orthographic learning of an alphabetic foreign language. The little letter-sound knowledge development observed in the experiment-I control group indicates that very little letter-sound knowledge develops in the absence of dedicated letter-sound training. Given the important role of letter-sound knowledge in English orthographic learning, dedicated letter-sound instruction is highly recommended.