Why group apologies succeed and fail: intergroup forgiveness and the role of primary and secondary emotions

It is widely assumed that official apologies for historical transgressions can lay the groundwork for intergroup forgiveness, but evidence for a causal relationship between intergroup apologies and forgiveness is limited. Drawing on the infrahumanization literature, we argue that a possible reason for the muted effectiveness of apologies is that people diminish the extent to which they see outgroup members as able to experience complex, uniquely human emotions (e.g., remorse). In Study 1, Canadians forgave Afghanis for a friendly-fire incident to the extent that they perceived Afghanis as capable of experiencing uniquely human emotions (i.e., secondary emotions such as anguish) but not nonuniquely human emotions (i.e., primary emotions such as fear). Intergroup forgiveness was reduced when transgressor groups expressed secondary emotions rather than primary emotions in their apology (Studies 2a and 2b), an effect that was mediated by trust in the genuineness of the apology (Study 2b). Indeed, an apology expressing secondary emotions aroused no more forgiveness than a no-apology control (Study 3) and less forgiveness than an apology with no emotion (Study 4). Consistent with an infrahumanization perspective, effects of primary versus secondary emotional expression did not emerge when the apology was offered for an ingroup transgression (Study 3) or when an outgroup apology was delivered through an ingroup proxy (Study 4). Also consistent with predictions, these effects were demonstrated only by those who tended to deny uniquely human qualities to the outgroup (Study 5). Implications for intergroup apologies and movement toward reconciliation are discussed.     

Theory of Planned Behavior: Implications for an email-based physical activity intervention

ObjectivesA 3-week study was conducted to determine the effect of persuasive messages sent via email on psychological constructs associated with Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and exercise behavior in sedentary college students (N=170).MethodsParticipants (105 M; 65 F; 94% Caucasian; 20.2±.9 years) completed the Godin Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire (GLTEQ) and self-report measures of the TPB. Participants received persuasive messages every other day for 2 weeks. One randomly assigned group received positively framed messages (PFM; n=57); the other received negatively framed messages (NFM, n=57); and the control group (CG; n=56) received none. Participants completed the GLTEQ and TPB questionnaires following the 2-week treatment phase and again 1 week later.ResultsANCOVA results revealed that PFM reported higher exercise behavior levels than both NFM and CG at follow-up (p<.05) and retention (p<.05). For exercise intention, PFM and NFM reported significantly higher levels than CG at follow-up (p<.05), while PFM reported higher levels than NFM and CG at retention (p<.05). Also, pairwise comparisons revealed higher intention levels for NFM compared to CG at retention (p<.05). PFM reported higher levels of affective attitude compared to CG at follow-up (p<.05) and retention (p<.05), while NFM reported higher levels than CG at follow-up (p<.05). For instrumental attitude, all three groups were statistically different (p<.05) at retention (PFM>NFM, NFM>CG, PFM>CG).ConclusionsOnly positively framed persuasive messages sent via email improved exercise behavior. Both types of messages affected attitude, and intention in sedentary young adults. This research provides useful information for creating interventions to enhance exercise adherence.     

Telephone versus print delivery of an individualized motivationally tailored physical activity intervention: Project STRIDE.

OBJECTIVE: Given that only 25% of Americans meet physical activity recommendations, there is a need to develop and disseminate effective, evidence-based interventions to promote physical activity. The authors tested 2 delivery channels, telephone and print, to determine whether one was more effective in promoting physical activity. DESIGN: The authors randomly assigned 239 healthy, sedentary adults to (a) telephone-based individualized feedback, (b) print-based individualized feedback, or (c) contact control. Both intervention arms were guided by a motivationally tailored, theoretically driven computer expert system. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Physical activity as measured by the 7-day Physical Activity Recall interview. RESULTS: At 6 months, both telephone and print arms significantly increased in minutes of moderate intensity physical activity compared with control, with no differences between the intervention arms. At 12 months, print participants reported a significantly greater number of moderate intensity minutes than both telephone and control participants, who did not differ. CONCLUSION: Results suggest that both telephone and print enhance the adoption of physical activity among sedentary adults; however, print interventions may be particularly effective in maintaining physical activity in the longer term.     

Resources for health: a primary-care-based diet and physical activity intervention targeting urban Latinos with multiple chronic conditions.

OBJECTIVE: The Resources for Health trial evaluates a social-ecologically based lifestyle (physical activity and diet) intervention targeting low-income, largely Spanish-speaking patients with multiple chronic conditions. DESIGN: A randomized controlled trial was conducted with 200 patients recruited from an urban community health center and assigned to intervention and usual care conditions. Intervention involved 2 face-to-face, self-management support and community linkage sessions with a health educator, 3 follow-up phone calls, and 3 tailored newsletters. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Primary outcomes measured at 6-months were changes in dietary behavior and physical activity. Changes in multilevel support for healthy living were evaluated as a secondary outcome. RESULTS: After adjustment for age, sex, language, and number of chronic conditions, significant intervention effects were observed for dietary behavior and multilevel support for healthy lifestyles but not for physical activity. CONCLUSION: The Resources for Health intervention provides an effective and practical model for improving health behavior among low-income, Spanish-speaking patients with multiple chronic conditions.     

Internet-delivered physical activity intervention for college students with mental health disorders: a randomized pilot trial

The prevalence of mental health disorders among college students is rising and the increasing rates of anxiety and depression have important societal implications. Physical activity has been proposed as an adjuvant to traditional treatment approaches (i.e. psychotherapy or pharmacotherapy), and the internet is a potentially useful means of delivering physical activity information to the college-aged population. This randomized pilot trial examined the effects of an internet-based physical activity intervention on physical activity, self-efficacy, depression, and anxiety in college students (n?=?47) receiving mental health counseling. Physical activity, depression, anxiety, exercise self-efficacy, and barriers self-efficacy were assessed at baseline and post-intervention. There was a significant time effect for physical activity, with both groups increasing their physical activity levels across the 10-week intervention but with a larger increase in the intervention condition (d?=?0.68) than the control condition (d?=?0.05). Exercise and barriers self-efficacy declined across the intervention, but more so in the control than intervention condition. Effects on depression and anxiety were nonsignificant. Finally, correlation analyses showed increases in physical activity were associated with increases in exercise self-efficacy (r?=?0.62) and barriers self-efficacy (r?=?0.63) and decreases in depression (r?=?-0.44) in the intervention condition, but not in the control condition. These results suggest that an internet-delivered physical activity intervention may be a promising approach to promoting physical activity among college students undergoing mental health counseling.     

Internet-delivered behavioral intervention to increase physical activity in persons with multiple sclerosis: Sustainability and secondary outcomes

Physical activity is associated with many benefits, but persons with multiple sclerosis (MS) are less physically active than the general population. There is a critical need for research on methods of increasing and sustaining the physical activity levels of this population. This randomized controlled trial examined the efficacy of an Internet-delivered and theory-based behavioral intervention that was supplemented with video coaching for increasing and sustaining physical activity over time in persons with MS. Physically inactive, ambulatory persons with MS (N?=?45) were randomly assigned to intervention (n?=?22) or control (n?=?23) conditions and completed a battery of questionnaires before, after, and three months after a 12-week intervention period. Data analyses were conducted in PASW 18.0. Partial eta squared ([Formula: see text]) effect size indicated that there was a large, statistically significant condition-by-time interaction on physical activity ([Formula: see text]). Cohen's d effect sizes indicated that the intervention group had a large increase in physical activity after the 12-week trial (d?=?.98) that was sustained over a three-month follow-up (d?=?.79). The current study supports the efficacy of a behavioral intervention for increasing and sustaining physical activity in a sample of persons with MS.     

Building a multiple modality, theory-based physical activity intervention: The development of CardiACTION!

OBJECTIVES: Despite the widely acknowledged benefits of regular physical activity (PA), specific goals for increased population levels of PA, and strongly recommended strategies to promote PA, there is no evidence suggesting that the prevalence of PA is improving. If PA intervention research is to be improved, theory should be used as the basis for intervention development, participant context or environment should be considered in the process, and intervention characteristics that will heighten the likelihood of translation into practice should be implemented (e.g., ease of implementation, low human resource costs). The purpose of this paper is to describe the implementation of the aforementioned concepts within the intervention development process associated with CardiACTION an ongoing randomized 2 × 2 factorial trial. METHODS: The Ecological Model of Physical Activity integrated with Protection Motivation Theory was used to inform the design of the interventions. This integrated model was selected to allow for the development of theory-based individual, environmental, and individually + environmentally targeted physical activity interventions. All intervention strategies were matched to proposed mediators of behavior change. Strategies were then matched to the most appropriate interactive technology (i.e., interactive computer session, automated telephone counseling, and tailored mailings) delivery channel. CONCLUSIONS: The potential implications of this study include determining the independent and combined influence of individual and environment mechanisms of behavior change on intervention effectiveness. In addition, all intervention models are developed to be scalable and disseminable to a broad audience at a low cost.     

Correlates of changes in voluntary physical activity associated with the Youth Fit For Life intervention during after-school care

Overweight in youth is increasing and physical inactivity has been implicated as a causal factor. An after-school care intervention, Youth Fit For Life, has been associated with significant improvements in physiological factors and frequency of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity voluntarily completed outside of structured settings. Correlates of the observed changes in physical activity amounts were, however, unknown. A multiple regression equation with simultaneous entry of sex, age, race, initial Body Mass Index, and initial frequency of voluntary physical activity as predictor variables for changes in physical activity was calculated on Euro-American and African-American participants ages 8 to 12 years (N=217). A statistically significant 16% of the variance in changes in frequency of voluntary physical activity over 12 wk. was accounted for, with only voluntary physical activity at baseline and age making significant, unique contributions. For participants either overweight or at risk for overweight (n=72), the changes in physical activity significantly correlated with changes in Body Mass Index. Implications of findings to maximize treatment effects on voluntary physical activity were suggested.     

Relations of age with changes in self-efficacy and physical self-concept in preadolescents participating in a physical activity intervention during afterschool care

An inference from Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that preadolescents of different ages who participate in a physical activity intervention may respond differently on measures of their physical self and self-efficacy, so a field investigation was conducted to assess effects. In a sample of 105 children ages 8 to 12 yr. (42% boys, overall M(age) = 10.1 yr., SD = 0.9), participation in a physical activity intervention during afterschool care, based on social cognitive theory and incorporating instruction in self-management and self-regulatory skills, was associated with significant improvements in measures of exercise-related self-efficacy, perceived physical appearance, and physical self-concept over 12 wk. Analyses suggested, however, no difference in changes on these factors was associated with participants' age or children being in either the concrete operations or formal operations stage of cognitive development. After replication, implications for design of physical activity interventions for preadolescents were suggested.     

Psychological,social and physical environmental mediators of the SCORES intervention on physical activity among children living in low-income communities

ObjectivesThis study examined mediation effects of socio-ecological variables on accelerometer-determined physical activity among children in the Supporting Children's Outcomes using Rewards, Exercise and Skills (SCORES) intervention.DesignRandomized control trial mediation analysis.MethodsPrimary school children were randomly assigned the SCORES multi-component intervention or control group for the 12-month study. The outcome was accelerometer derived total moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Hypothesized mediators measured in children were physical activity enjoyment and perceived sport competence and social support. Hypothesized mediators measured in parents were family social support, access to physical activity facilities and equipment at home, and perceived access to physical activity opportunities in the local community. Mediation analyses were conducted using multi-level linear analysis in MPlus.ResultsThere were significant intervention effects for social support from teachers (A = 1.73, SE = 0.88, p = 0.048) and parental perceived access to physical opportunities in the local community (A = 2.69, SE = 1.12, p = 0.016). There were significant associations between changes in perceived sport competence (B = 0.48, SE = 0.36, p = 0.027), parental perceived access to physical activity opportunities in the local community (B = 0.60, SE = 0.26, p = 0.021), and changes in total MVPA. Parental perceived access to physical activity opportunities in the local community was found to have a significant mediating effect on total MVPA (AB = 1.61, 95% CI = 0.06 to 3.95, proportion 13%).ConclusionsParental perceived access to physical activity opportunities in the local community is a potential mechanism of behavior change for children and mediated the effect of the SCORES intervention on objectively measured physical activity.     

Evaluation of a school-based intervention programme to promote physical activity: an application of the theory of planned behavior

The Theory of Planned Behavior provides a useful framework to study attitudes toward participation in physical activity. The objective of the study was to test the effectiveness of an intervention in manipulating the variables of the Theory of Planned Behavior and exercise habits with 366 high school students (M = 14.2 yr., SD = .7; 201 boys and 165 girls). The students were divided into intervention and control groups. A questionnaire to measure components of the theory, and the Baecke Questionnaire of Habitual Activity measuring exercise habits, were administered. The intervention lasted 12 wk. and included posters and lectures promoting participation in physical activity. Analyses showed the intervention was effective in improving attitudes towards physical activity, perceived behavioral control, intention, and self-reported actual behavior, but it was ineffective for improving attitude strength, subjective norms, and role identity. The results provide useful information for physical education teachers interested in promoting students' positive attitudes towards physical activity.     

Accuracy and repeatability of the Yale physical activity survey in assessing physical activity of older adults.

The purpose of this study was to extend the initial evaluation of the Yale Physical Activity Survey to assess physical activity in older adults. The survey yields three indicators of physical activity reflecting activities performed during a typical week of the previous month (Total Time, Total Energy Expenditure) and the past month (Total Activity Summary Index). Questionnaire validity was studied in 56 men and women, ages 56 to 86 years, by comparing the average of 3- or 7 day 24-hr. physical activity records (n=56), predicted maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) (n = 23) and the sum of three skinfold measurements. Two-week repeatability was estimated by calculating an intraclass coefficient using an analysis of variance with repeated measures. Spearman rhos were used to study questionnaire validity. Analysis showed the survey was easily administered and scored and exhibited moderate-to-good repeatability. For the first administration the Total Energy Expenditure Index was significantly associated with the physical activity diary (r = .27). On the second administration, correlations were significant for the physical activity diary with the Total Energy Expenditure Index (r = .30), the Total Activity Summary Index (r = .36), and the Total Time Index (r = .27), and for VO2 max and the Total Time Index (r = .49) and Total Activity Summary Index (r = .64). Relative to the criterion measures used in this study, some validity was evident for the second administration in this relatively active and healthy sample of older adults.     

Identifying Beneficial Physical Activity During School Recess: Utility and Feasibility of the Fitbit

The purpose of the current study was to assess the utility, feasibility, and reliability of Fitbit accelerometers to measure physical activity (via steps) of 15 young children simultaneously during recess. Fitbit-recorded steps per minute (SPM) were used as the primary measure to assess levels of activity in children playing in various structured (i.e., instructed) and unstructured (i.e., free play) recess activities. The results suggested that the number of steps measured by two Fitbits resulted in high levels of agreement, and the Fitbits were successful at identifying differential levels of activity across multiple types of play activities. Across all children, running or walking was associated with the most SPM (M = 89) and highest percentage of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA; M = 47%), followed by soccer (M = 58 SPM; M = 12% MVPA), free play (M = 53 SPM; 3% MVPA), and tag (M = 43 SPM; 7% MVPA). The utility of the Fitbit’s minute-by-minute data records was demonstrated, with the use of additional third-party software by Python, as differential levels of physical activity associated with various play behaviors were detected, and all 15 participants were assessed simultaneously with very few observers.     

Views on aging and emotional benefits of physical activity: Effects of an exercise intervention in older women

Objectives

This intervention study evaluated the effects of exercise in old age on views on one’s own aging and on direct approach motivation for physical activity. It further examined the mechanism between these variables.

Design

Two hundred forty-seven healthy women aged 70−93 years were randomized to an exercise course (n = 86), an active (n = 85), or a passive control group (n = 76) for a 6-month participation in Berlin, Germany. Activity interventions (3 × 1.5 h/wk) were conducted using standardized manuals.

Method

Group differences in changes of views on aging and direct approach were evaluated by analyses of covariance adjusted for baseline. A mediating effect of direct approach between exercise participation and views on aging was tested with percentile-based bootstrapping.

Results

In contrast to both the active and the passive control groups, higher direct approach, F(2, 226) = 6.97, p = .001, and less aging dissatisfaction, F(2, 225) = 5.39, p = .005, were observed in the exercise group after 6 months. Exercise had an indirect beneficial effect on aging dissatisfaction through direct approach, B = −0.31, 95% CI = −0.68 to −0.05.

Conclusion

In women above 70 years, exercise participation increases direct approach motivation which in turn leads to lower aging dissatisfaction. This shows that exercise holds the potential to overcome subjective ageist bias.     

Reciprocal relationships between three aspects of physical self-concept,vigorous physical activity,and lung function: A longitudinal study among late adolescents

ObjectivesThis prospective study, of older adolescents, investigated relationships between three aspects of physical self-concept, vigorous physical activity and lung function. In particular, physical competence, general appearance evaluations and body areas satisfaction were expected to predict subsequent physical activity, which, in turn, was expected to explain variation in lung function. In line with the reciprocal effect model, bi-directorial relationships were also tested. Gender was expected to moderate hypothesized relationships.DesignA longitudinal design, with three measurement points (baseline, 2-month follow-up, and 14-month follow-up) was employed.Method551 late adolescents (15–18 years old) provided self-reported data on physical activity, physical competence, body areas satisfaction, and appearance evaluation. Body weight, height, and a lung function index (forced expiratory volume in 1 s, FEV₁) were measured at baseline and at the 14-month follow-up.ResultsModerated mediation analyses indicated that physical competence at baseline predicted vigorous physical activity (2-month follow-up) among young men and women. Baseline body satisfaction and appearance evaluation were also related to vigorous physical activity (2-month follow-up) and this relationship was stronger for men. Vigorous physical activity predicted FEV₁ (14-month follow-up) and this relationship was stronger among women. The reciprocal pattern of relationships was not confirmed.ConclusionsFindings suggest that health promoting interventions should focus particularly on vigorous physical activity among young women, for example by boosting their physical competence.