回溯式时距估计年龄差异的实验研究

采用回溯式时距估计的实验范式,以9s为目标时距,采用加工深度作业,考察时距估计的年龄差异。结果表明年老组比年轻组显著高估目标时距,而加工深度作业并没有影响时距估计作业。回溯式时距估计的年龄差异可能与年老被试较慢的加工速度或更快的遗忘率有关,其原因可能在于年老被试加工资源的减少。     

回溯式时距估计的计时机制

回溯式时距估计是以记忆为主要成分, 且事后才知要对两个相继事件之间的间隔时间或某一事件持续时间的长短进行估计。可分为近时和远时的回溯式时距估计, 两者的计时机制与记忆有关, 但各有侧重：前者侧重短时或长时记忆, 直接证据来源于即时回忆单一或多个认知任务以估计时间, 间接证据则聚焦于物理、生理、心理因素的影响; 后者侧重自传体记忆, 可从问卷或访谈的测量方式以及主客体特征的影响两个方面来寻找证据。今后需以整合的观点深入探究回溯式时距估计的计时机制, 拓展回溯式时距估计行为测量的研究, 并开展对回溯式时距估计神经生物学基础的探讨。     

状态焦虑对回溯式时距判断的影响：认知评价和记忆偏向有调节的中介作用

探讨状态焦虑对回溯式时距判断的影响, 并检测记忆偏向与认知评价在其中的中介和调节作用。实验1招募大学生60人, 随机分为高、低状态焦虑组, 采用情绪诱导程序诱导高、低状态焦虑; 采用口头估计任务测量回溯式时距判断, 考察高、低状态焦虑诱导后的回溯式时距判断差异。实验2在实验1的基础上, 招募大学生60人, 增加自由回忆任务测量记忆偏向, 考察状态焦虑对回溯式时距判断的影响中记忆偏向的中介作用。实验3在实验1和实验2的基础上, 招募大学生90人, 增加视觉模拟心境量表测量认知评价, 考察状态焦虑对回溯式时距判断的影响, 并检测认知评价与记忆偏向在其中的作用。结果发现：(1)在回溯式时距判断中, 高状态焦虑比低状态焦虑更高估时距; (2)在状态焦虑对回溯式时距判断的影响中, 记忆偏向具有中介作用; (3)在状态焦虑对回溯式时距判断的影响中, 认知评价和记忆偏向存在有调节的中介作用：只有当认知评价得分较低时, 即对于认为焦虑对身体健康有害程度较低的个体而言, 在状态焦虑影响回溯式时距判断中, 记忆偏向具有完全中介作用, 即状态焦虑只通过记忆偏向影响回溯式时距判断。研究结果揭示了焦虑个体回溯式时距判断的内部过程, 验证了注意闸门模型中有关用于计时的记忆资源越多对于时距越高估的假设, 丰富了焦虑通过记忆偏向影响回溯式时距判断的解释视角, 为通过调整认知评价改善焦虑个体时距偏差提供了重要参考。     

公众时间回溯式记忆的特点

采用事后回溯设计,考察了大学生公众时间回溯式记忆的特点。研究选取1995到2001年之间发生可辨别的新闻事件14项,要求被试对新闻事件的时序、时点和时距进行回忆。结果表明：（1）公众事件回溯式时点记忆的正确率随时间的远近发生变化,较远的时间回忆正确率低,而较近的时间回忆正确率较高,存在近因效应。（2）公众事件的回溯式时距估计受真实时距的影响,短时距容易被高估,长时距容易被低估。（3）公众事件的回溯式时序回忆存在近因效应和首因效应,被试对发生较远的事件总是倾向于估计得更远,对发生较近的事件也倾向于估计得较近。而对两者中间的事件的顺序估计较为混乱。（4）本实验研究的公众事件回溯式时间记忆符合时间的重构理论和分段综合模型。     

预期式时距估计年龄差异的初步研究

以5s、13s和26s为目标时距,采用产生法和复制法,探讨了预期式条件下时距估计的年龄差异。结果表明在单任务作业中。年老被试和年轻被试两个年龄组之间估计时距的平均值没有显著差异,但年老被试比年轻被试的估计时距具有更大的变异性。单一的内部时钟频率变化的假设并不能对单任务条件下时距估计的年龄差异做出合理的解释。时距估计的年龄差异可能是内部时钟频率变化和认知过程变化交互作用的结果。     

时距估计年龄差异的认知机制

采用双任务的实验范式,通过对（5s、13s和26s）三个目标时距的产生法和复制法的结果来探讨时距估计年龄差异的认知机制。实验结果表明,在不同目标时距和不同的估计方法上均存在显著的年龄效应。年老被试在产生法上比年轻被试显著高估时距,存在非时间任务和年龄的交互作用,随着任务难度的增加年老被试会比年轻被试产生更长的时距。而在复制法上年老被试比年轻被试显著低估时距,但是只有在长时距条件下（26s）存在非时间任务和年龄的交互作用。本研究结果表明年老被试在产生法上对时距的高估可能与内部时钟减慢和注意资源减少有关,而在复制法上对时距的低估可能反映注意资源的减少。此外,对于长时距的时间复制,情节记忆的损伤也是导致时距估计年龄差异的一个可能原因。     

时点,时距和时序信息加工之间相关性研究

本研究分为两个实验,分别采用预期式和回溯式范型,探讨时距、时序和时点三者之间信息加工的相关性,结果发现：同一时间经历,时距估计与时序判断随注意参与程度的增加,由负相关趋势向正相关变化;时距估计与时点离散度可能呈正相关趋势;时序判断与时点离散度随注意参与程度的增加,由负相关趋势向正相关变化。     

任务熟悉度对回溯式时距估计的影响

以64名大学生为被试,使用对汉字进行知觉判断的任务,探讨熟悉度、时距估计方法、性别和加工深度对回溯式时距估计的影响。结果发现:(1)熟悉度对回溯式时距估计没有影响。(2)相对于结构加工任务,被试更加倾向于低估意义加工任务的时距。(3)在结构加工任务中,复制法的时距估计误差绝对值小于口头估计法。(4)男性在结构加工任务中的时距估计误差小于女性。研究表明熟悉度对时距估计的影响可能并非普遍现象。     

短时距标量计时模型的建构研究

采用预期式研究范式,创造性地使用单任务研究程序,从心理物理学的视角,通过六个实验系统地考查了影响被试短时距(6s至24s)估计的标量特性和物理、心理和生理的信息源因素.深入探讨了注意、激活、间断和间断期望效应因素对时间估计行为的影响及时序信息的动态加工过程.在此基础上,包含时钟、累加、记忆和比较四个动态加工过程的短时距标量计时模型得以建构.     

回溯式时间记忆特点的实验研究

实验研究在2个月的时间内探索了回溯式时间记忆的特点,实验选取15个影视片断和8个新闻事件,影视片段播放的时间和新闻事件的发生同期,要求被试回忆影视片段和新闻事件的时点、时距和时序。结果表明：（1）在时序上,影视片段时序的准确性高于新闻事件;在时距上,7分钟和15分钟的准确性高于30分钟,7分钟时距倾向于高估,30分钟时距倾向于低估;在时点上,影视片段的准确性高于新闻事件。（2）时点的回溯式记忆受到被试自我卷入程度的影响。（3）回溯式时距估计受到真实时距的长短和延迟时间长短的交互影响。（4）事件序列关系一般倾向于具有网络层次的特征,在无充足思考时间条件下,倾向于具有线形模型的特征。     

疼痛条件下时间目标对时距估计的影响

本研究采用冷压任务引发疼痛,以健康大学生为被试,试图探讨在疼痛条件下时间目标对时距估计的影响。结果发现：疼痛条件下的时距估计值小于非疼痛条件下时距估计值,疼痛条件下具体时间目标的时距估计值显著大于无目标时距估计值。临床上给患者提供具体的时间目标或许有助于他们应对疼痛。     

个人自立、反馈对长时距估计的影响

为了探索人格与反馈对时间估计的影响,本研究采用非时间任务和预期式时距估计的方法对个人自立高分组与低分组共40名被试进行了研究。结果发现：（1）虽然差异不显著,但是在两次时距估计中个人自立高分组的时距估计绝对错误量均小于低分组;（2）个人自立高分组的时距估计绝对错误量变化幅度显著小于低分组;（3）个人自立高分组在两次时距估计绝对错误量上的相关明显大于低分组;（4）有反馈组的时距估计绝对错误量显著小于无反馈组。据此可以认为：（1）由个人自立导致的时间估计的个体差异表现在时间估计的误差变异度和准确性两个方面。高个人自立者的时间估计误差的变异度更小,同时可能倾向于更准确地进行时距估计。（2）反馈有助于提高时间估计的准确性。（3）“绝对错误量变化幅度”和“时距估计绝对错误量的相关”是两个值得在今后的研究中应用的指标。     

Retrospective duration estimations for variant and invariant events in field situations

Retrospective duration estimations were investigated immediately after participation in everyday, naturalistic activities which ranged between 4 seconds and 80 minutes in length. Those events which remain invariant over time were more accurately estimated than events which are variable in length. Support was found for Vierordt's Law (1868); short events were overestimated and longer events were underestimated. Imagery‐rehearsal had no significant effect on duration estimation. Age of participants was not related to duration estimations. Women gave reliably longer estimations than men, but no reliable differences were found for gender when estimations were based on events which were frequently experienced in familiar settings. Confidence–accuracy correlations were reliable for judgements of invariant events but not for variant events. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

时距估计中的锚定效应

采用两种时距估计方法,检验时距锚定值对时距估计的影响,并探讨了时距信息的心理表征方式。63名在校大学生参加了本次实验。实验1采用口头报告法,表明较大的时距锚定值（5s,5000ms）条件下,被试估对时距的估计值较大,而较小时距锚定值（1s,1000ms）条件下被试估计的时距值较小;语义相同但表述方式不同的锚定值（1s与1000ms,5s与5000ms）条件下的时距估计值没有显著差异。实验2采用产生法,进一步表明时距表述方式对产生时距没有显著影响。以上结果表明,时距估计受时距锚定值的影响,时距信息可能以语义形式进行表征,而不是简单的数字加单位的表层表征形式     

Stability of individual loudness functions obtained by magnitude estimation and production

A correlational analysis of individual magnitude estimation and production exponents at the same frequency was perfor.med, as well as an analysis of individual exponents produced in different sessions by the same procedure across frequency(250, 1, 000, and 3, 000 Hz). Taken together, results show, first, that individual exponent differences do not decrease by counterbalancing magnitude estimation with magnitude production, and, second, that individual exponent differences remain stable over time despite changes in stimulus frequency. Further results disclose that although individual magnitude estimation and production exponents do not necessarily obey the .6 power law, it is possible to predict the slope (exponent) of an equal-sensation function averaged for a group of listeners from individual magnitude estimation and production data. Assuming that individual listeners with sensorineural hearing loss also produce stable and reliable magnitude functions, it is also shown that the slope of the loudness-recruitment function measured by magnitude estimation and production can be predicted for individuals with bilateral losses of long duration. Thus, results obtained in normal and in pathological ears suggest that individual listeners can produce loudness judgments that reveal, albeit indirectly, the input-output characteristic of the auditory system.     

Immediate and remote time estimation — A comparison

The influence of the length of time elapsing between the termination of an interval on its estimated duration was tested in three experiments. In the first experiment, 89 subjects performed the W, C, and CW tasks of the Stroop color-word test. The duration of each of these three tasks, which was 10 second in reality, was estimated twice by every subject. Once, immediately upon completion of the task (IE), and a second time 90 seconds later (RE), both under prospective paradigm. The nature of the relationship between task difficulty and its estimated duration was found to be different in IE and RE. A negative relationship was found in IE while in RE no significant difference was found between difficulty levels. In the second experiment it was found that RE's trend was not caused by estimation order. In the third experiment IE and RE were tested under prospective and retrospective paradigms. In the perspective paradigm the results obtained in experiment 2 were replicated. In the retrospective paradigm the relationship between task difficulty and time estimation was, unlike the prospective paradigm, negative in both IE and RE. The significance of the results to time estimation theory was discussed.     

Long-term retention in 3.5-month-olds: familiarization time and individual differences in attentional style

Using a paired-comparison procedure, we examined the effect of familiarization variables on 3.5-month-old infants' (n = 120) retention of dynamic visual stimuli after 1-min, 1-day, and 1-month delays. The proportion of total looking time to the novel stimulus revealed novelty, null, and familiarity preferences after 1-min, 1-day, and 1-month delays, respectively, for infants who were permitted 30 s of familiarization time. Twenty seconds of familiarization time was insufficient to produce novelty preferences. These results support models of infant retention in which the direction of attentional preferences (novel, familiar, or null) depends on memory accessibility. To examine the impact of individual differences in familiarization or attentional style on memory, infants were identified as long or short lookers according to their peak-look duration on pretest and familiarization trial measures. Compared to long lookers, short lookers showed better retention over time indicating that much of the variability in the infant group data could be accounted for by these individual differences.     

Retrospective duration estimation of public events

In three experiments, we investigated subjects' retrospective estimation of the duration of publicly reported events such as, for example, the Falkland's war. In Experiment 1, duration estimates were found to be positively correlated with event knowledge, in keeping with Ornstein's (1969) model of duration estimation. Event duration was, however, generally underestimated, suggesting that the relationship between event knowledge and estimated duration might reflect an increase in estimation accuracy. Other results of Experiment 1 were consistent with this interpretation and suggested that the duration estimates might be largely reconstructed. In Experiment 2, duration estimates of specific events and general categories of events were found to be highly correlated, and the subjects in Experiment 3 indicated that they used knowledge of the general characteristic of different types of events to estimate event duration. Overall, reallife duration estimates appear to be based on a combination of specific event information and knowledge derived about that category of event.     

Delay or rate of food delivery as determiners of response rate

Pigeons were confronted with two keys: a green food key and a white changeover key. Food became available for a peck to the green key after variable intervals of time (mean = 113 seconds). A single peck on the changeover key changed the color of the food key to red for a fixed period of time during which the timing of the variable-interval schedule in green was suspended and the switching option eliminated and after which the conditions associated with green were reinstated. In Experiment 1 a single food presentation was obtainable during each red-key period after a minimum delay timed from the switch. This delay and the duration of the red-key period were held constant during a condition but varied between conditions (delay = 2.5, 7.5, 15, or 30 seconds; red-period duration = 30, 60, 120, 240, or 480 seconds). In Experiment 2 additional food presentations were scheduled during a 240-second red-key period with the delay to the first food delivery held constant at 30 seconds, and the delays to later food deliveries varied over conditions. Considering the data from both experiments, the rate of switching to red was a decreasing function of the delay to the first food, the delay to the second food, and perhaps the delay to the third food after a switch. There was no clear evidence that the rate of food in the red-key period made an independent contribution. The ordering of response rates among conditions was consistent with the view that each food presentation after a response adds an incremental effect to the rate of the response and that each food presentation's contribution is a decreasing function of its delay timed from the response.