中国城乡跨文化心理学刍议

城乡跨文化心理学的母体是跨文化心理学,它旨在探讨城乡两种亚文化背景中的社会结构、思想观念、生活准则、价值体系、行为方式、民俗习惯、神话传说、宗教信仰以及语言特点等方面的共同文化心理特质和文化心态差异,中国的城乡跨文化心理学着重揭示城乡两种文化背景下个体或群体社会心理的基本差别,并因此为心理学提供研究原则和方法方面的启示,进而为乡村城市化过程中各种问题的解决查明心理学上的依据。     

文化心理学的跨学科运用——以跨文化传播研究为例

文化心理学是最近二三十年来心理学中发展最快的领域之一,作为一门典型的交叉学科,它有人类学、心理学、传播学等多种学科取向,是一门有胸怀、有气度、能包容的学科。文化心理学与跨文化传播研究诞生在相同的社会历史文化背景中,拥有共同的学科渊源,这种天然的关系决定了跨文化传播研究中运用文化心理学的正当性、必然性。文化心理学的全球化研究视角为跨文化传播研究提供了参照; 文化的观念、文化适应理论、文化敏感性和文化冲突理论等文化心理学的概念和理论为跨文化传播研究提供了理论支撑; 文化心理学还为跨文化传播现象和问题的具体研究提供了分析工具。反之,跨文化传播研究不仅为文化心理学提供了鲜活的案例,还为其理论建构提供了重要资源。     

跨文化行为心理学——文化取向心理学第四方向

首先简要回顾比较了文化取向心理学的四个不同的方向：文化心理学、本土心理学、跨文化心理学,以及新的发展方向——跨文化行为心理学;重点介绍了跨文化行为心理学与文化碰撞情境概念的提出以及一个跨文化行为模型;其次提出了该学科在跨文化协同增效方面的重要应用;最后做出了在中国文化背景下开展相应研究的展望。     

论跨文化发展心理学

跨文化发展心理学是发展心理学的一个组成部分,是跨文化心理学比较研究的一个重要分支。发展心理学研究人类心理系统发生发展的过程和个体心理发生发展的规律,而跨文化发展心理学的目的在于研究不同文化背景中不同年龄的个体行为表现或心理发展的类似性和差异性。跨文化发展心理学的成果有助于解释人类行为的起源及其发展过程,有助干区别在文化依赖和文化独立两种情况下产生、发展的行为,还有助于揭示影响儿童如何仿效成人行为的各种因素,如家庭结构,宗教、经济状况等。跨文化发展心理学可以为社会科学和生理科学提供具体的证据以验证它们的理论假设或预测,这种研究的成果有利于消除民族中心主义和狭隘的民族偏见,也可以促进普通心理学的发展研究。     

实验哲学、语义学直觉与文化风格

文化心理学的研究表明东方人和西方人在基本的认知过程如感知、注意、记忆等方面有着系统的差异。(cf.Nisbett,etal.)这方面的大量研究发现文化塑造了人的认知模式。受到这种研究的启发,温伯格对认识论中的哲学直觉进行了实验,发现认知直觉有着系统的跨文化差异。     

行为的文化差异:几头大象还是一群蚂蚁?（英文）

本文综述了关于行为与文化之间关系的研究。综述分为如下几个部分:第一部分介绍了跨文化/文化心理学自20世纪中叶创立以来,在人类行为的共同性、差异性以及心理功能在多大程度上存在文化特异性的问题上的持续争论。第二部分探讨文化差异的魅力,论证为什么迄今的研究往往偏向于寻找行为的差异而不是跨文化的不变性。第三部分简要概述跨文化比较研究中的文化偏误、缺乏等价性等问题及其对数据解释的影响。第四部分重点阐述本文题目中的主题,即跨文化差异的心理组织。这部分内容对目前文化心理学研究中存在的倾向,即从宽泛的维度或笼统的心理功能角度来组织和解释行为差异提出了挑战。第五部分则通过跨文化心理学的历史回顾,以几个重要的传统研究领域为代表来具体说明这种过度泛化的倾向及近期的研究发展,其中也包括了中国研究人员贡献越来越大的文化神经科学领域。最后对跨文化心理学的前景与展望进行了讨论。     

行为的文化差异:几头大象还是一群蚂蚁?

本文综述了关于行为与文化之间关系的研究.综述分为如下几个部分:第一部分介绍了跨文化/文化心理学自20世纪中叶创立以来,在人类行为的共同性、差异性以及心理功能在多大程度上存在文化特异性的问题上的持续争论.第二部分探讨文化差异的魅力,论证为什么迄今的研究往往偏向于寻找行为的差异而不是跨文化的不变性.第三部分简要概述跨文化比较研究中的文化偏误、缺乏等价性等问题及其对数据解释的影响.第四部分重点阐述本文题目中的主题,即跨文化差异的心理组织.这部分内容对目前文化心理学研究中存在的倾向,即从宽泛的维度或笼统的心理功能角度来组织和解释行为差异提出了挑战.第五部分则通过跨文化心理学的历史回顾,以几个重要的传统研究领域为代表来具体说明这种过度泛化的倾向及近期的研究发展,其中也包括了中国研究人员贡献越来越大的文化神经科学领域.最后对跨文化心理学的前景与展望进行了讨论.     

跨文化心理学研究的几个理论问题

确切地说,跨文化心理学是由一大类建立在比较文化方法基础上的心理学研究所构成的一个领域,它的所谓理论问题,主要体现为对心理学的比较文化方法和方法论课题的理论思考。跨文化心理学的方法来自两个方面。一是人类学、社会学、政治学等学科比较方法的借鉴与移植,二是传统心理学方法的跨文化改造。大部分的研究者对这种借鉴移植与改造过程中的理论问题的观点,只是或隐或显地散在于各自的跨文化心理学研究中,很少有建立统一的理论框架的尝试。目前较为突出、争论较多的有如下几个方面:关于“文化”的概念;跨文化心理学的研究层次和焦点;考     

文化混搭:研究现状与发展方向

文化混搭指"不同文化在同一时空中呈现"的现象,是全球化背景下心理学中文化研究的新热点。文化混搭研究代表了继跨文化心理学、文化心理学和多元文化心理学之后,心理学文化研究的第四个阶段——文化会聚主义心理学,并从不同方面延伸与拓展了传统的多元文化研究。已有文献从文化混搭对个体心理和行为的影响、个体对文化混搭的反应及心理机制等角度展开了实证研究。未来研究应进一步明晰文化混搭的概念定义和研究范畴、提炼和比较其不同表现形式、探究既有研究结论中的不一致性、比较文化元素的混搭与非文化元素的混搭的异同、采用多学科多层次的研究方法和手段。     

回顾与展望:马克思主义与文化心理学

马克思主义关于人类本质和文化现象的深刻认识,对文化心理学探索文化差异问题有借鉴意义。维果茨基的文化历史理论、列昂捷夫的活动理论,以及经济方式影响文化差异的实证研究中,都能发现马克思主义的价值所在。目前从马克思主义视角对文化心理学进行的研究几乎为空白,未来在解释文化的影响因素以及增强理论批判性时可借鉴马克思主义的理论观点。     

Cultural influences on Facebook photographs

Prior research in social psychology indicates that East Asians from collectivistic and interdependent sociocultural systems are more sensitive to contextual information than Westerners, whereas Westerners with individualistic and independent representation have a tendency to process focal and discrete attributes of the environment. Here we have demonstrated that such systematic cultural variations can also be observed in cyberspace, focusing on self‐presentation of photographs on Facebook, the most popular worldwide online social network site. We examined cultural differences in face/frame ratios for Facebook profile photographs in two studies. For Study 1, 200 digital profile face photographs of active Facebook users were randomly selected from native and immigrant Taiwanese and Americans. For Study 2, 312 Facebook profiles of undergraduate students of six public universities in East Asia (Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan) and the United States (California and Texas) were randomly selected. Overall, the two studies clearly showed that East Asian Facebook users are more likely to deemphasize their faces compared to Americans. Specifically, East Asians living in Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan exhibited a predilection for context inclusiveness in their profile photographs, whereas Americans tended to prioritize their focal face at the expense of the background. Moreover, East Asian Facebook users had lower intensity of facial expression than Americans on their photographs. These results demonstrate marked cultural differences in context‐inclusive styles versus object‐focused styles between East Asian and American Facebook users. Our findings extend previous findings from the real world to cyberspace, and provide a novel approach to investigate cognition and behaviors across cultures by using Facebook as a data collection platform.     

The influence of culture on the self and selfobject relationships: An asian‐north american comparison

This essay first situates the development of self psychology within the culture of North American individualism, then delves into its relevance for understanding Asians, and comes full circle in reassessing what is universal or culturally variable in the current formulation of self psychology. The Asian self is compared with the North American one, and Asian familial hierarchical relationships with American egalitarian ones, resulting in a different cultural structuring of selfobject relationships, including the psychoanalytic one. A comparative psychology of idealizing selfobject relationships is then developed. Intercultural encounters between Asians and North Americans in the United States reveal problems in the interface because of the different culturally influenced selfobject relationships.     

"Express yourself": culture and the effect of self-expression on choice

Whereas self-expression is valued in the United States, it is not privileged with such a cultural emphasis in East Asia. Four studies demonstrate the psychological implications of this cultural difference. Studies 1 and 2 found that European Americans value self-expression more than East Asians/East Asian Americans. Studies 3 and 4 examined the roles of expression in preference judgments. In Study 3, the expression of choice led European Americans but not East Asian Americans to be more invested in what they chose. Study 4 examined the connection between the value of expression and the effect of choice expression and showed that European Americans place greater emphasis on self-expression than East Asian Americans, and this difference explained the cultural difference in Study 3. This research highlights the importance of the cultural meanings of self-expression and the moderating role of cultural beliefs on the psychological effect of self-expression.     

Prospective Examination of Leisure-Time Exercise Behavior During Pregnancy

The negative and positive content of self-talk, the relationship of self-talk to performance, and persistence following positive and negative feedback were investigated across different cultural backgrounds (European Americans n = 54, East Asians n = 26). East Asians had a significantly larger proportion of negative to positive self-talk than European Americans, d = .62. The greater proportion of negative self-talk related to poorer performance for European Americans, but better performance for East Asians, r ² = .13. European Americans’ practice persistence increased after receiving positive versus negative feedback, d = .59. No differences occurred in persistence for East Asians, d = .06. Results suggest sport psychology consultants and coaches should consider an athlete's cultural background when employing cognitive interventions and providing feedback.     

Cultural Variations in Motivation for Cognitive Consistency: Influences of Self‐Systems on Cognitive Dissonance

Are people always motivated to strive for cognitive consistency? Does culture influence a person’s motivation to maintain cognitive consistency between attitudes and actions or between preferences and choices? When and how do people in different cultures experience cognitive dissonance, engage in justification of their behavior, and use self‐affirmation? When and how are people with different models of agency motivated to maintain a preference‐choice consistency? In this paper, culturally variable self‐schemata and models of agency, independent self and agency dominant in North American culture and interdependent self and agency prevalent in Asian culture, are considered as the source of cultural variations in cognitive consistency. These culturally divergent self‐systems create variance in situations in which North Americans and Asians are motivated to maintain cognitive consistency. In this paper, related cross‐cultural research is reviewed. Some future research agenda are also discussed.     

Culture and decision‐making: Investigating cultural variations in the East Asian and North American online decision‐making processes

Research in cross‐cultural psychology suggests that East Asians hold holistic thinking styles whereas North Americans hold analytic thinking styles. The present study examines the influence of cultural thinking styles on the online decision‐making processes for Hong Kong Chinese and European Canadians, with and without time constraints. We investigated the online decision‐making processes in terms of (1) information search speed, (2) quantity of information used, and (3) type of information used. Results show that, without time constraints, Hong Kong Chinese, compared to European Canadians, spent less time on decisions and parsed through information more efficiently, and Hong Kong Chinese attended to both important and less important information, whereas European Canadians selectively focused on important information. No cultural differences were found in the quantity of information used. When under time constraints, all cultural variations disappeared. The dynamics of cultural differences and similarities in decision‐making are discussed.     

Culture, control, and perception of relationships in the environment

East Asian cognition has been held to be relatively holistic; that is, attention is paid to the field as a whole. Western cognition, in contrast, has been held to be object focused and control oriented. In this study East Asians (mostly Chinese) and Americans were compared on detection of covariation and field dependence. The results showed the following: (a) Chinese participants reported stronger association between events, were more responsive to differences in covariation, and were more confident about their covariation judgments; (b) these cultural differences disappeared when participants believed they had some control over the covariation judgment task; (c) American participants made fewer mistakes on the Rod-and-Frame Test, indicating that they were less field dependent; (d) American performance and confidence, but not that of Asians, increased when participants were given manual control of the test. Possible origins of the perceptual differences are discussed.     

Stand tall,but don't put your feet up: Universal and culturally-specific effects of expansive postures on power

Previous research suggests that there is a fundamental link between expansive body postures and feelings of power. The current research demonstrates that this link is not universal, but depends on people's cultural background (Western versus East Asian) and on the particular type of expansive posture enacted. Three types of expansive postures were examined in the present studies: the expansive-hands-spread-on-desk pose (Carney et al., 2010), the expansive-upright-sitting pose (Huang et al., 2011, Tiedens and Fragale, 2003), and the expansive-feet-on-desk pose (Carney et al., 2010). Of these postures, the expansive-feet-on-desk pose was perceived by both Americans and East Asians as the least consistent with East Asian cultural norms of modesty, humility, and restraint (Study 1). The expansive-hands-spread-on-desk and expansive-upright-sitting postures led to greater sense of power than a constricted posture for both Americans and East Asians (Studies 2a–2b). In contrast, the expansive-feet-on-desk pose led to greater power activation (Study 3) and action orientation (Study 4) for Americans, but not for East Asians. Indeed, East Asians in the expansive-feet-on-desk pose showed less power activation and action orientation than Americans in this pose. Together, these findings support a basic principle of embodiment — the effects of posture depend on: (a) the type of posture, and (b) the symbolic meaning of that posture.     

Culture and context: East Asian American and European American differences in P3 event-related potentials and self-construal

Research has demonstrated differences in social and cognitive processes between East Asians and European Americans. Whereas East Asians have been characterized as being more sensitive to situational context and attending more to the perceptual field, European Americans have been characterized as being more focused on the object and being more field independent. The goal of the present experiment was to investigate differences in neural responses to target objects and stimulus context between East Asian Americans and European Americans using a three-stimulus novelty P3 event-related potential design. As hypothesized, European Americans displayed relatively greater target P3 amplitudes, indexing attention to target events, whereas East Asian Americans displayed relatively greater novelty P3 amplitudes, indexing attention to contextually deviant events. Furthermore, the authors found that interdependent self-construal mediated the relationship between culture and the novelty P3. These findings identify a specific pattern of neural activity associated with established cultural differences in contextual sensitivity.