Do clutch players win the game? Testing the validity of the clutch player's reputation in basketball

ObjectivesThe sport psychology literature recognizes the existence of clutch behavior among elite athletes. The present study questions the validity of the clutch reputation in basketball. The performance of clutch players was compared to that of their teammates, using a broad approach that included different performance measures.DesignEight basketball experts ranked NBA players according to their perceived reputation of being clutch shooters. The selection procedure resulted in a sample of 16 clutch players who had successfully made a game-deciding shot, or had made a successful shot in the final few minutes to tie the game, during the 2003–2006 seasons.MethodData were collected from play-by-play reports of 222 tied NBA games during the 2005–2006 season and playoffs. Data were reduced to the final five minutes of the second and fourth quarters in each close/tied game. A MANOVA and several ANOVAs were conducted in order to compare the performance measures of the clutch players and the average of their teammates, in game phases of low and high pressure.ResultsThe reported main effects of clutch versus non-clutch players suggest a superior performance of the clutch players. The results also show that the clutch players improved their performance in the final, most decisive phase of the game, which could be interpreted as evidence for clutch ability. However, the clutch players did not improve their general shooting skills, as might have been expected.ConclusionsTop NBA players, like most other people, do not perform better under pressure situations, at least not while considering their chances of making a shot, but clutch players do influence the end-result of the game in other aspects.     

Personal and Situational Variables That Describe Coping With Acute Stress in Competitive Sport

Abstract

The authors examined the degree to which competitive basketball players in Australia were consistent in their cognitive appraisals and coping strategies in response to 4 types of stressful situations that they had experienced during previous basketball games as functions of perceived stress intensity. The authors predicted that both approach and avoidance coping strategies would be dependent on the type of stressful event, in accord with the transactional model. The results supported that prediction: Approach strategies were more prevalent than avoidance strategies following 3 of the 4 events. Cognitive appraisals and perceived stress intensity also strongly influenced the participants' use of coping strategies, accounting for 34% of the variance.     

Contextual and individual influences on antisocial behaviour and psychobiosocial states of youth soccer players

Purpose

The aim of the study was to assess the effects of contextual and individual variables (perceived motivational climate and moral atmosphere, task/ego orientation and perceived competence) on antisocial behaviour and emotion-related psychobiosocial (PBS) states as conceptualised within the individual zones of optimal functioning model.

Participants

The study was conducted on a sample of 382 young male soccer players, aged from 14 to 16 years, drawn from 27 Italian teams.

Method

A cross-sectional design was used. Assessment included measures of reported antisocial behaviour, perceived moral atmosphere, perceived motivational climate, goal orientation, perceived competence, and PBS states. Data analysis involved confirmatory factor analysis of measures and path analysis of the hypothesized relationships.

Results

Results suggest that performance climate and a moral atmosphere, in which aggressive behaviours are encouraged, are likely to determine antisocial behaviour and a range of unpleasant PBS states in young sports participants.

Conclusions

Findings substantiate the importance of the situational factors on ethical aspects and emotional states in youngsters.     

Consistency of performance-related emotions in elite athletes: Generalizability theory applied to the IZOF model

ObjectivesTo estimate the between- and within-individual consistency of the individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF)-based emotion profiles describing successful and unsuccessful (sub-standard) performance situations.MethodThe methodology of generalizability theory (GT) was applied to two multifaceted measurement designs in studies of 12 highly skilled ice-hockey players assessed by the 28-item aggregated sport-specific emotion scale (Study 1) and a single-case involving elite soccer player (Study 2) using self-generated individualized emotion scale, respectively.ResultsA unique and specific interaction of emotions (the IZOF-“iceberg” or bell-shaped profile) characterized successful performance situations in both Study 1 and 2. This pattern with predominance of optimal pleasant and unpleasant emotions was consistently revealed in between- and within-individual comparisons. In contrast, failure (or sub-standard performance) could not be characterized in terms of one unique and specific profile. However, the findings clearly motivate future research to identify multiple emotion profiles to conceptualize sub-standard performance. The paper offers hypotheses to guide future research.ConclusionsFindings provided support for conceptualizing performance situations in terms of relatively stable optimal and dysfunctional patterns of interaction of pleasant and unpleasant emotions. Results also demonstrate that GT is a methodology that can accommodate idiographic as well as nomothetic approaches to estimating within-individual and between-individual consistency patterns of performance-related emotions.     

Does game pressure affect hand selection of NBA basketball players?

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to compare hand selection and accuracy of technical skills between low- and high-pressure games of the National Basketball Association (NBA) in the 2018–2019 regular season and playoffs.MethodA notational analysis was conducted on 24 games of four teams (12 low-pressure games and 12 high-pressure games, six of each team, three in each condition). One- or two-handed actions were recorded for dribbling, passing, catching, and shooting (layups, dunks, hooks, and tips) skills.ResultsDuring high-pressure games, players significantly increased the frequency of right-handed passing. High-pressure games also increased the frequency of left-handed catching. For dribbling and shooting, no differences were observed in hand frequency between conditions. The success rate of all analyzed skills was similar between the hands in both low- and high-pressure conditions.ConclusionOur results showed that game pressure could selectively modulate hand preference for passing and catching skills in elite-level basketball while presenting no significant effect on performance between hands.     

Effects of a cognitive-behavioral intervention on field hockey players’ appraisals of organizational stressors

ObjectivesWe assessed the effects of a cognitive-behavioral intervention on English field hockey players’ appraisals of organizational stressors, emotions, and performance satisfaction.DesignA concurrent, across-participants, multiple-baseline, single-case research design with a three months post-intervention follow-up.MethodFour high-level female field hockey players participated in a four phase intervention that lasted between 24 and 26 weeks: rapport-building and observation (phase I), baseline monitoring (phase II), educating the players and facilitating acquisition of a cognitive restructuring technique (phase III), and encouraging integration of the technique during sport performance (phase IV). Questionnaires and social validation were used to record the participants' appraisals, emotions, and performance satisfaction throughout the intervention. A three months post-intervention follow-up was conducted to assess the participants’ retention of the intervention effects.ResultsReduced threat and loss appraisals and elevated challenge appraisals were reported immediately after Phase III had been introduced. Pleasant emotions and performance satisfaction increased while unpleasant emotions decreased throughout the intervention. Social validation immediately post-intervention and at the end of the follow-up period indicated sustained adaptive changes in each of the outcome variables.ConclusionsCognitive restructuring represents a promising technique for optimizing high-level hockey players’ appraisals. Challenge appraisals and pleasant emotions appear to be linked with increased performance satisfaction and positive intervention effects can be retained for a period of three months post-intervention. Researchers should examine the effectiveness and efficacy of the cognitive restructuring technique with other populations to develop a robust evidence base for appraisal optimization in sport.     

Personality and performance in real-world competitions: Testing trait activation of fear of negative evaluation,dispositional reinvestment,and athletic identity in the field

ObjectivesBased on the trait activation principle, researchers have tested whether personality traits are capable of predicting sport performance (under pressure). Typically, however, these investigations followed experimental approaches in the laboratory and only rarely in the field. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to test for the generalizability of findings gained in these experimental studies and to investigate potential trait activation for real-world performance in competitions. Based on prior studies on the prediction of performance under pressure, the selected personality traits involved fear of negative evaluation, dispositional reinvestment, and athletic identity.DesignPersonality traits were used as predictors for low-pressure and high-pressure basketball free-throw performance.MethodFirst, 53 basketball players completed trait questionnaires. Second, directly prior to performance assessments, participants reported on perceived importance, their somatic and cognitive state anxiety, and confidence. Third, free-throw performance was assessed in a low-pressure condition (i.e., successful free-throw percentage for 30 attempts) and repeatedly in 12 high-pressure conditions within real basketball matches (i.e., successful free-throw percentage for total attempts).ResultsTwo main findings were identified: First, none of the traits predicted performance under low pressure. Second, under high-pressure, only fear of negative evaluation as well as state anxiety were significantly negatively associated with performance in competitions.ConclusionThese results extend existing literature and add applied and ecologically valid empirical support for the relevance of anxiety-related traits (i.e., fear of negative evaluation) and states for performance under pressure in real-world competitions, emphasizing the importance of self-presentational considerations in athletes when the stakes are high.     

Stress appraisals influence athletic performance and psychophysiological response during 16.1 km cycling time trials

ObjectivesWe examined how stress appraisals were associated with emotions, coping behaviours, as well as subjective and objective measures of performance.DesignProspective field- and laboratory-based studies.MethodsIn Study 1, 192 athletes completed process-oriented psychometrics pertaining to the aforementioned constructs throughout a sporting competition. Study 2 utilised an experimental design to assess the causal influence of stress appraisals on performance, cortisol, and psychological variables. Thirty gender-matched athletes were randomly assigned to either a stress appraisal (e.g., challenge, threat, benefit, or harm/loss) or the control group. Participants completed three 16.1 km cycling time trials (TT) on a cycle ergometer, with their appropriate stress appraisal engendered via falsified performance feedback throughout the final TT. Salivary cortisol samples and psychometrics (e.g., appraisals, emotions, and coping) were collected before and after each TT.ResultsThe results of Study 1 revealed a sequential link between challenge stress appraisals and perceived goal attainment via pleasant emotions and task-oriented coping behaviours. Threat stress appraisals inversely related to goal attainment via unpleasant emotions and both distraction- and disengagement-oriented coping. In Study 2, no significant psychophysiological or performance differences were found across genders. The temporal orientation of stress appraisals influenced objective cycling TT performance. Benefit and harm/loss stress appraisals significantly facilitated or inhibited performance, respectively. Cortisol spikes were observed in the stress appraisal group’s threat, challenge, and benefit, with a decline detected within the harm/loss group. Whilst the process of winning is physiologically stressful, the fear of defeat may be more stressful than losing itself.ConclusionStress appraisals influence subjective and objective performance, as well as neuroendocrine and psychological responses to stress.     

Performance-induced emotions experienced during high-stakes table tennis matches

ObjectivesTo characterize the contents of emotions experienced by elite table tennis players during high-stakes matches and the situational elements that contribute to these experiences.DesignA four-case study.MethodThree top-level table tennis players from the French Men's Table Tennis Team volunteered to participate in the study. Four matches were studied. Procedures involved: (a) videotaping high-stakes table tennis matches, (b) conducting self-confrontation interviews with players after matches, (c) transcribing the players’ actions and self-confrontation data, (d) decomposing their activity into elementary units, and (e) identifying typical contents of emotion and typical emotional situations.ResultsThe contents of players’ emotions varied during matches. The pleasant or unpleasant tone of emotional content was linked to the set result and the interpretations of the unfolding situation. However, other elements of the competitive interaction (score configurations, judgments about the strokes performed) had a strong emotional coloration. Certain similar events (e.g., bad sensations during stroke performance) were frequently coupled with similar emotional content (e.g., displeasure).ConclusionsUntil quite recently, the predominant focus in sport psychology has been on pre-performance emotions, with far less attention paid to the subjective emotional experiences that occur during task execution. This exploratory study provides initial empirical support for the notion of bi-directionality in emotion–performance relationships [Hanin, Y.L. (Ed.). (2000). Emotions in sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; Hanin, Y.L. (2003). Performance related emotional states in sport: A qualitative analysis. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research [On-line Journal], 4(1). Available at: http://www.qualitative-research.net/fqs-texte/1-03/1-03hanin-e.htm].     

Psychophysiological responses to sport-specific affective pictures: A study of morality and emotion in athletes

ObjectivesThe link between morality and emotion has received little attention in the sport context. To address this issue, we examined whether moral disengagement, empathy, antisocial behaviour and psychopathy were associated with emotional reactions to unpleasant pictures depicting players being hurt or deliberately fouled in a sport context.DesignA cross-sectional design was employed.MethodTeam sport athletes (N = 66) completed measures of moral disengagement, empathy, antisocial behaviour and psychopathy and then viewed unpleasant, neutral, and pleasant sport pictures while emotional reactions to the pictures were assessed using valence and arousal ratings of the pictures as well as electrocutaneous startle blink, heart rate, skin conductance, and evoked potentials.ResultsMoral disengagement, empathy and psychopathy, but not antisocial behaviour, were associated with emotional reactions to the unpleasant pictures. Specifically, moral disengagement was related to attenuated startle blink responses and higher valence (less unpleasant) ratings, whereas empathy was associated with lower valence (more unpleasant) ratings. Psychopathy was associated with smaller startle blink responses and less heart rate deceleration.ConclusionOur findings provide support for the link between morality and emotion in athletes. Moral variables may be more closely linked with specific measures of emotion, highlighting the utility of taking a multi-measure approach in the assessment of emotion.     

Psychobiosocial experiences in sport: Development and initial validation of a semantic differential scale

ObjectivesTo develop and validate the Psychobiosocial Experience Semantic Differential scale in sport (PESD-Sport), a new measure to assess discrete emotions and performance-related experiences in sport as conceptualized within the individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF; Hanin, 2000, 2007, 2010) framework.MethodIn Study 1, we developed a preliminary 53-item version of the scale using a semantic differential format in the construction of the items pertaining to 12 psychobiosocial modalities. We chose this format to attain a clear representation of psychobiosocial states between opposites along perceived performance functionality (i.e., functional, dysfunctional). The preliminary scale was then administered in a sample of 280 athletes. In Study 2, a 30-item scale derived from Study 1 was cross validated in a second independent sample of 302 athletes.ResultsFindings from Study 1 provided preliminary evidence of factorial and construct validity for a 10-modality, 30-item model (3 items for each modality). Findings from Study 2 supported the factor structure of a model containing 30 items loading into 10 modalities (i.e., unpleasant/pleasant emotions, confidence, anxiety, assertiveness, cognitive, bodily-somatic, motor-behavioral, operational, communicative, and social support). Convergent, discriminant, and nomological validity of the PESD-Sport was also demonstrated.ConclusionBased on a substantive theoretical framework, this new measure of discrete emotions and performance-related experiences can advance the knowledge on the relationship between psychobiosocial states and performance. The scale could also inform applied interventions aimed at improving psychobiosocial experiences for performance enhancement.     

Visual stimuli in distraction strategies for increasing pain tolerance

Recent experimental studies in pain control have questioned the value of pleasant affect in strategies employing distraction. It appears that pleasant affect may have been systematically confounded with task complexity or novelty in past research that found pleasant imagery or slides effective in increasing pain tolerance with the cold pressor test. The present study was a follow-up to a study conducted by this author (Greenstein, 1984) in which unpleasant slides had significantly increased pain tolerance above pleasant slide level. In the present study, 69 college students (35 females, 34 males) rated either the pleasant or unpleasant slides used in the original study on their perceived pleasantness, complexity, and uniqueness (novelty). Results indicated that the unpleasant slides were rated significantly more complex (P<0.001) and unique (P<0.001) than the pleasant slides. Additionally, as in the earlier study, ratings of the unpleasant slides on pleasantness deviated significantly farther from neutrality than did ratings of the pleasant slides (t=5.04,P<0.001). Thus the unpleasant slides were also perceived as being more significant (i.e., pertinent) than were the pleasant slides. The results indicate that affect was confounded with other stimulus characteristics in the Greenstein (1984) pain control study and probably in a significant number of other studies as well. Researchers are cautioned to control for the stimulus characteristics of visual distraction strategies used in pain control studies. The assumption that pleasantness,per se, contributes to strategy effectiveness is no longer tenable; future research must demonstrate an independent effect. Further, the implication that stimulus significance may increase the effectiveness of distraction strategies opens up a potentially fruitful avenue of research in pain control.     

A game-to-game investigation of the relation between need-supportive and need-thwarting coaching and moral behavior in soccer

ObjectiveAlthough perceived need-supportive and need-thwarting coaching have received considerable attention, the question whether coach behavior fluctuates from game to game, with resulting associations with players’ moral behavior has not been examined.Design and methodA Belgian sample of soccer players (N = 197; M = 26.57) was followed during five competition games, with players completing measures both prior to and following each game assessing, pre-game and on-game perceived coaching as well as athletes’ moral behavior.ResultsResults of multilevel analyses indicated that there exists substantial variation in perceived need-thwarting and need-supportive coaching behavior from game to game. The game-to-game variation in perceived pre-game need-thwarting coaching behavior related positively to variation in the adoption of an objectifying stance, which, in turn, related to variation in antisocial behavior oriented towards the opponent, the referee, and even their own teammates. Variation in perceived on-game need-supportive and need-thwarting coaching behavior yielded an additional relation to team-related moral outcomes. Finally, supplementary analysis indicated that these effects also held for an objective marker of moral functioning (i.e., number of yellow cards) and that players’ level of competition-contingent pay related to their antisocial behavior via an objectifying stance.ConclusionThe discussion highlights the fluctuating and dynamic nature of motivating coaching behavior, and its association with players’ moral functioning.     

Reliable measurement in sport psychology: The case of performance outcome measures

ObjectivesThe present research addresses a neglected aspect within the current Zeitgeist of improving methodological standards in (sport)psychology: reliable measurement. We discuss and highlight the importance of reliable measurement from different perspectives and empirically assess reliability of three commonly used performance outcome measures in order to give guidelines to researchers on how to increase reliability of measurements of performance outcomes.MethodIn three studies we estimate 5 different reliability coefficients for three performance outcome measures based on 14 golf putts (study 1; N = 100), 14 dart throws (study 2; N = 200; 100 sports students; 100 non-sports students) and 14 free throws in basketball (study 3; N = 192; 100 non-basketball players; 92 basketball players).ResultsThe highest reliability was the odd-even reliability for darts for the whole sample (0.888), followed by golf putts (0.714 for distance from the hole, 0.614 for successful putts) and free throws (0.504 non-basketball players; 0.62 for basketball players; and 0.826 for whole sample).ConclusionsBased on theoretical considerations and our empirical findings we give practical guidelines to improve reliability for performance outcome measures in sport psychology.     

Perceptions of dual career development among elite level swimmers and basketball players

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to (1) examine swimmers' and basketball players' perceptions of their dual career development (2) explore these perceptions for possible differences between male and female participants as well as between swimmers and basketball players.Design and methodSemi-structured interviews with 12 retired Slovene elite level swimmers and basketball players (six males and six females) were used to discuss about transitions, demands and challenges which occurred throughout their dual career development. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and analysed using the qualitative analytic software program Nvivo 10.ResultsQualitative analysis of interviews revealed that athletes perceived their athletic career in strong and reciprocal connection to other domains in their lives, i.e. academic/vocational, psychological, psychosocial, financial level. Some of the transitions occurring in their dual career were experienced as particularly important (e.g., transition to university, finishing university study) and connected to several challenges occurring at different levels of development. Differences between male and female participants, swimmers and basketball players in this study were identified.ConclusionThe study revealed a usefulness of using a holistic perspective when investigating athletes' dual career development, and a reciprocal nature of transitions occurring at different levels of athletes' development.     

Reciprocal relationships between contextual and situational motivation in a sport setting

ObjectiveThe purpose of this investigation was to test the hypothesized reciprocal top-down (TD) and bottom-up (BU) relationships between motivation at one given level and motivation at the next adjacent level in Vallerand's [1997, Toward a hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 271–360). New York: Academic Press] Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation. These postulates were examined in two studies, whereby the dynamic interplay between motivation toward a specific life domain (i.e., contextual) and the motivation experienced during a specific point in time (i.e., situational) was examined.Method and ResultsIn Study 1, a sample of collegiate basketball players (N=162) were followed during two games at a pre-season tournament. Reciprocal TD and BU effects between athletes’ contextual motivation toward their sport and the situational motivation they experienced during their games were expected. The influence of situational factors such as perceptions of personal and team performance on situational motivation was also examined. Results from path analyses provided support for our hypotheses. Study 2 (N=150) replicated the findings of Study 1 which followed athletes during an entire basketball season. Reciprocal TD and BU effects between athletes’ contextual motivation toward their sport and the situational motivation they experienced during games of each half of the season were observed. Moreover, contextual motivation assessed at the end of the season predicted athletes’ sustained interest in their sport. Results from Study 2, also provided support for the mediating role of psychological need satisfaction on the relationship between situational factors such as perceptions of personal and team performance on athletes’ situational motivation experienced during games.ConclusionImplications for intrinsic/extrinsic motivation theory and research in the sports domain are discussed.     

Do not interrupt me if it makes me feel something – Study of the effect of the pleasantness of interruptions on performance

IntroductionInterruptions are mostly related to negative outcomes and researchers already found that the complexity or the length of interruptions modulate their deleterious effect on performance. However, none of them investigated the effect of the pleasantness of interruptions.ObjectiveThe objective of the study is to evaluate the impact of the pleasantness on both the correct completion of the interrupting task and the time required to resume the primary task.MethodWe designed a realistic email searching primary task during which 46 participants were either not interrupted or interrupted by a simple math addition task during which a positive or a negative picture was progressively revealed. We then asked participants how pleasant they found the interrupting task and investigated the effects of perceived pleasantness both on the interrupting task and on resuming the primary task.ResultsResults showed that performance on the interrupting task was worst and the time to resume the primary task was longer when participants found the task very pleasant or very unpleasant. Performance in both tasks was the best when participants gave intermediate pleasantness judgments. The findings were independent of the valence and arousal of the pictures used to manipulate task pleasantness.ConclusionThese results are discussed in light of empirical studies assessing the deleterious effects of emotions on cognition, and practical implications are proposed.     

Alleviating Choking: The Sounds of Distraction

“Choking” is defined as a critical deterioration in the execution of habitual processes as a result of an elevation in anxiety levels under perceived pressure, leading to substandard performance. In the current study, music was used in a “dual-task” paradigm to facilitate performance under pressure. Three “choking-susceptible” experienced female basketball players were purposively sampled from 41 screened players. Participants completed 240 basketball free throws in a single-case A₁-B₁-A₂-B₂ design (A phases = “low-pressure” and B phases = “high-pressure”), with the music intervention occurring during the B₂ phase. Following completion of the phases, an interview was conducted to examine perceptions of choking and cognitions associated with the effects of the music lyrics. Participants improved performance in the B₂ phase, and explained that choking resulted from an increase in public self-awareness (S-A). The music intervention decreased S-A, and enabled participants to minimize explicit monitoring of execution and reduce general distractibility.     

Does decision making transfer across similar and dissimilar sports?

ObjectivesThe ability to make decisions under time pressure is crucial to performance in sport. However, there remains a paucity of research that examines whether the skills underpinning decision-making transfer across similar or dissimilar sports. We examine whether decision making transfers from soccer to other sports that may be deemed to be either similar (basketball) or dissimilar (tennis) based on sports taxonomy.MethodsSkilled soccer players (N = 20) completed a video-based temporal occlusion test designed to measure decision-making involving offensive sequences of play from soccer, basketball, and tennis. Participants were required to decide on an appropriate action to execute for each situation presented.ResultsResponse accuracy was higher in the soccer decision-making task compared to the basketball and tennis tasks. Furthermore, accuracy scores were higher on the basketball compared to the tennis task.ConclusionsThere appears to be some positive transfer of decision-making between sports that share similar elements, supporting the importance both of specificity and generality in expert performance.